El sexismo en el lugar de trabajo a la luz de los valores personales y de las percepciones de justicia organizacional

El sexismo contra las mujeres continúa ocasionando profundas desigualdades en el ámbito laboral a nivel mundial, a pesar de los esfuerzos por erradicarlo. Frente a esta problemática, la presente investigación tuvo como objetivo explorar empíricamente el impacto de variables sociodemográficas, psicológicas y organizacionales, sobre la emergencia del sexismo en el lugar de trabajo. Se efectuó una verificación empírica enmarcada en los lineamientos de la triangulación metodológica, a través de tres aproximaciones sucesivas. La primera aproximación metodológica, de corte cualitativo, estuvo orientada al desarrollo de un instrumento para explorar la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo. Se llevaron a cabo encuentros de grupo focal y entrevistas en profundidad con muestras teóricas de la población objetivo (12 y cuatro empleados, respectivamente). El análisis de la información recogida permitió la elaboración, puesta a punto y validación de la versión definitiva del instrumento. La segunda aproximación metodológica, de corte cuantitativo, tuvo como finalidad la adaptación y validación del Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente para su empleo con muestras argentinas. En esta etapa se trabajó con una muestra por disponibilidad de 345 sujetos. Finalmente, la tercera aproximación metodológica, encuadrada en una perspectiva cuantitativa, tuvo como objetivo poner a prueba las hipótesis de trabajo planteadas. En esta oportunidad, se tomó una nueva muestra por disponibilidad integrada por 414 empleados de diversas organizaciones de la provincia de Santa Fe. La batería de recolección de datos incluyó la escala desarrollada en la primera aproximación, el inventario validado en la segunda, y reconocidos instrumentos para medir individualismo-colectivismo, percepciones de justicia organizacional y deseabilidad social. Los datos reunidos fueron sometidos a análisis descriptivos, correlacionales y multidimensionales. Los resultados más destacados muestran que: (a) los varones, los sujetos con nivel educativo primario/secundario y los trabajadores de organizaciones privadas, pequeñas y del sector industrial, presentan mayores niveles de sexismo que las mujeres, los individuos con nivel educativo superior, y los trabajadores de organizaciones públicas y grandes; (b) los empleados del sector privado y del ramo salud registran menores percepciones de justicia procedimental que los empleados del sector público; (c) los empleados permanentes perciben menos justicia distributiva, y los empleados contratados menos justicia procedimental, que sus superiores; (d) las dimensiones verticales del colectivismo e individualismo se relacionan positivamente con el sexismo en todas sus facetas, en tanto que el individualismo horizontal se vincula positivamente con el prejuicio sexista; (e) mientras el sexismo hostil se asocia negativamente con la justicia interpersonal, el sexismo benévolo se relaciona positivamente con las facetas distributiva, procedimental e informacional de la justicia organizacional; (f) por su parte, la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo presenta correlaciones positivas con la justicia procedimental; (g) los principales predictores del sexismo son el género (varón), el nivel educativo (primario secundario), el tamaño organizacional (pequeño), el colectivismo vertical y el individualismo vertical. Los resultados obtenidos se discuten a la luz de las teorías consideradas. Se concluye proponiendo posibles acciones para disminuir el sexismo y mejorar las percepciones de equidad en las organizaciones, y se efectúan sugerencias para futuros estudios en el área

El sexismo en el lugar de trabajo a la luz de los valores personales y de las percepciones de justicia organizacional

El sexismo contra las mujeres continúa ocasionando profundas desigualdades en el ámbito laboral a nivel mundial, a pesar de los esfuerzos por erradicarlo. Frente a esta problemática, la presente investigación tuvo como objetivo explorar empíricamente el impacto de variables sociodemográficas, psicológicas y organizacionales, sobre la emergencia del sexismo en el lugar de trabajo. Se efectuó una verificación empírica enmarcada en los lineamientos de la triangulación metodológica, a través de tres aproximaciones sucesivas. La primera aproximación metodológica, de corte cualitativo, estuvo orientada al desarrollo de un instrumento para explorar la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo. Se llevaron a cabo encuentros de grupo focal y entrevistas en profundidad con muestras teóricas de la población objetivo (12 y cuatro empleados, respectivamente). El análisis de la información recogida permitió la elaboración, puesta a punto y validación de la versión definitiva del instrumento. La segunda aproximación metodológica, de corte cuantitativo, tuvo como finalidad la adaptación y validación del Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente para su empleo con muestras argentinas. En esta etapa se trabajó con una muestra por disponibilidad de 345 sujetos. Finalmente, la tercera aproximación metodológica, encuadrada en una perspectiva cuantitativa, tuvo como objetivo poner a prueba las hipótesis de trabajo planteadas. En esta oportunidad, se tomó una nueva muestra por disponibilidad integrada por 414 empleados de diversas organizaciones de la provincia de Santa Fe. La batería de recolección de datos incluyó la escala desarrollada en la primera aproximación, el inventario validado en la segunda, y reconocidos instrumentos para medir individualismo-colectivismo, percepciones de justicia organizacional y deseabilidad social. Los datos reunidos fueron sometidos a análisis descriptivos, correlacionales y multidimensionales. Los resultados más destacados muestran que: (a) los varones, los sujetos con nivel educativo primario/secundario y los trabajadores de organizaciones privadas, pequeñas y del sector industrial, presentan mayores niveles de sexismo que las mujeres, los individuos con nivel educativo superior, y los trabajadores de organizaciones públicas y grandes; (b) los empleados del sector privado y del ramo salud registran menores percepciones de justicia procedimental que los empleados del sector público; (c) los empleados permanentes perciben menos justicia distributiva, y los empleados contratados menos justicia procedimental, que sus superiores; (d) las dimensiones verticales del colectivismo e individualismo se relacionan positivamente con el sexismo en todas sus facetas, en tanto que el individualismo horizontal se vincula positivamente con el prejuicio sexista; (e) mientras el sexismo hostil se asocia negativamente con la justicia interpersonal, el sexismo benévolo se relaciona positivamente con las facetas distributiva, procedimental e informacional de la justicia organizacional; (f) por su parte, la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo presenta correlaciones positivas con la justicia procedimental; (g) los principales predictores del sexismo son el género (varón), el nivel educativo (primario secundario), el tamaño organizacional (pequeño), el colectivismo vertical y el individualismo vertical. Los resultados obtenidos se discuten a la luz de las teorías consideradas. Se concluye proponiendo posibles acciones para disminuir el sexismo y mejorar las percepciones de equidad en las organizaciones, y se efectúan sugerencias para futuros estudios en el área

El sexismo en el lugar de trabajo a la luz de los valores personales y de las percepciones de justicia organizacional

El sexismo contra las mujeres continúa ocasionando profundas desigualdades en el ámbito laboral a nivel mundial, a pesar de los esfuerzos por erradicarlo. Frente a esta problemática, la presente investigación tuvo como objetivo explorar empíricamente el impacto de variables sociodemográficas, psicológicas y organizacionales, sobre la emergencia del sexismo en el lugar de trabajo. Se efectuó una verificación empírica enmarcada en los lineamientos de la triangulación metodológica, a través de tres aproximaciones sucesivas. La primera aproximación metodológica, de corte cualitativo, estuvo orientada al desarrollo de un instrumento para explorar la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo. Se llevaron a cabo encuentros de grupo focal y entrevistas en profundidad con muestras teóricas de la población objetivo (12 y cuatro empleados, respectivamente). El análisis de la información recogida permitió la elaboración, puesta a punto y validación de la versión definitiva del instrumento. La segunda aproximación metodológica, de corte cuantitativo, tuvo como finalidad la adaptación y validación del Inventario de Sexismo Ambivalente para su empleo con muestras argentinas. En esta etapa se trabajó con una muestra por disponibilidad de 345 sujetos. Finalmente, la tercera aproximación metodológica, encuadrada en una perspectiva cuantitativa, tuvo como objetivo poner a prueba las hipótesis de trabajo planteadas. En esta oportunidad, se tomó una nueva muestra por disponibilidad integrada por 414 empleados de diversas organizaciones de la provincia de Santa Fe. La batería de recolección de datos incluyó la escala desarrollada en la primera aproximación, el inventario validado en la segunda, y reconocidos instrumentos para medir individualismo-colectivismo, percepciones de justicia organizacional y deseabilidad social. Los datos reunidos fueron sometidos a análisis descriptivos, correlacionales y multidimensionales. Los resultados más destacados muestran que: (a) los varones, los sujetos con nivel educativo primario/secundario y los trabajadores de organizaciones privadas, pequeñas y del sector industrial, presentan mayores niveles de sexismo que las mujeres, los individuos con nivel educativo superior, y los trabajadores de organizaciones públicas y grandes; (b) los empleados del sector privado y del ramo salud registran menores percepciones de justicia procedimental que los empleados del sector público; (c) los empleados permanentes perciben menos justicia distributiva, y los empleados contratados menos justicia procedimental, que sus superiores; (d) las dimensiones verticales del colectivismo e individualismo se relacionan positivamente con el sexismo en todas sus facetas, en tanto que el individualismo horizontal se vincula positivamente con el prejuicio sexista; (e) mientras el sexismo hostil se asocia negativamente con la justicia interpersonal, el sexismo benévolo se relaciona positivamente con las facetas distributiva, procedimental e informacional de la justicia organizacional; (f) por su parte, la tendencia a la discriminación de género en el lugar de trabajo presenta correlaciones positivas con la justicia procedimental; (g) los principales predictores del sexismo son el género (varón), el nivel educativo (primario secundario), el tamaño organizacional (pequeño), el colectivismo vertical y el individualismo vertical. Los resultados obtenidos se discuten a la luz de las teorías consideradas. Se concluye proponiendo posibles acciones para disminuir el sexismo y mejorar las percepciones de equidad en las organizaciones, y se efectúan sugerencias para futuros estudios en el área

Consequences of feeling dissimilar from others in a work team

This study extended the current literature on group diversity by examining the moderating influence of perceived group openness to diversity on the relationships between perceived individual visible, informational, and value dissimilarity; individual task and relationship conflict; and work group involvement. A survey was administered to 129 public service employees who worked in intact teams. Results revealed that value dissimilarity had a positive association with task and relationship conflict and a negative association with work group involvement. Perceived group openness to diversity moderated the associations between visible and informational dissimilarity and work group involvement, and between value dissimilarity and task conflict. These results highlight the importance of managing differences by introducing norms promoting diversity and the involvement of all team members.

Moderating effect of allocentrism on the pay referent comparison-pay level satisfaction relationship

Pay referent comparisons (comparisons of one's salary to that of others) such as other-inside (salary of other people in the organisation), other-outside (the market rate), and cost-of- living, have been shown to influence pay level satisfaction. Bordia and Blau (1998) identified family as another referent that had a significant effect on pay level satisfaction in a sample of public and private sector employees in India. The finding was interpreted in view of the importance of family in collectivistic cultures. In the study reported here, the moderating influence of an individual differences variable, allocentrism-idiocentrism (the individual level conceptualisation of collectivism-individualism) on pay referent comparison-pay level satisfaction relationship was investigated. A sample of 146 employees from three public sector organisations in India participated in the study. In line with the predictions, results showed that after controlling for age, tenure, and pay level, pay referent comparisons explained more variance in pay level satisfaction for allocentrics than for idiocentrics. Family and pay level were stronger explanatory variables of pay level satisfaction for allocentrics and idiocentrics, respectively, while cost of living was a significant explanatory variable for both sub-groups.

Cultural and gender influences on age identification

Age identification plays a significant role in young adults" mass, interpersonal, intergenerational, and intercultural communication. This research examines cultural and gender influences on young people's age identity by measuring the social age identity of male and female young adult members of five cultures varying in individualism/collectivism (Laos, Thailand, Spain, Australia, and the U.S.A.). We found cultural influences on age identity to be both unexpected in nature and modest in effect. American and Laotian respondents had similar and nominally higher levels of age identity than Australian, Thai, and Spanish respondents, with all having a markedly different age identities than those of Japanese respondents as reported by other researchers. No direct effect for gender on age identity emerged, though American females were more age identified than all other respondents. Across cultures, the social identity scale was found to be a reasonably adequate measure of age identity.

Effective leadership in salient groups: Revisiting leader-member exchange theory from the perspective of the social identity theory of leadership

Two studies compared leader-member exchange (LMX) theory and the social identity theory of leadership. Study 1 surveyed 439 employees of organizations in Wales, measuring Work group salience, leader-member relations, and perceived leadership effectiveness. Study 2 surveyed 128 members of organizations in India, measuring identification not salience and also individualism/collectivism. Both studies provided good support for social identity predictions. Depersonalized leader-member relations were associated with greater leadership effectiveness among high- than low-salient groups (Study 1) and among high than low identifiers (Study 2). Personalized leadership effectiveness was less affected by salience (Study 1) and unaffected by identification (Study 2). Low-salience groups preferred personalized leadership more than did high-salience groups (Study 1). Low identifiers showed no preference but high identifiers preferred depersonalized leadership (Study 2). In Study 2, collectivists did not Prefer depersonalized as opposed to personalized leadership, whereas individualists did, probably because collectivists focus more on the relational self.

The impact of individualist and collectivist group norms on evaluations of dissenting group members

Two experiments were conducted to investigate the impact of individualist and collectivist norms on evaluations of dissenting group members. In the first experiment (N = 113), group norms prescribing individualism or collectivism were manipulated and participants were asked to evaluate a group member who expressed an attitude dissenting from or concordant with the group. In line with predictions, group members with concordant attitudes were evaluated more positively than group members with dissenting attitudes when norms prescribed collectivism. However, for high identifiers, we found an attenuation of the preference for Concordant over dissenting attitudes when norms prescribed individualism. These findings were replicated in a second experiment (N= 87), where dissent was operationalized in a way that did not reveal the content of the attitude. The discussion focused on the importance of individualist norms for broadening latitudes of acceptable group member behavior. (c) 2005 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Effective leadership in salient groups:revisiting leader-member exchange theory from the perspective of the social identity theory of leadership

Two studies compared leader-member exchange (LMX) theory and the social identity theory of leadership. Study 1 surveyed 439 employees of organizations in Wales, measuring work group salience, leader-member relations, and perceived leadership effectiveness. Study 2 surveyed 128 members of organizations in India, measuring identification not salience and also individualism/collectivism. Both studies provided good support for social identity predictions. Depersonalized leader-member relations were associated with greater leadership effectiveness among high-than low-salient groups (Study 1) and among high than low identifiers (Study 2). Personalized leadership effectiveness was less affected by salience (Study 1) and unaffected by identification (Study 2). Low-salience groups preferred personalized leadership more than did high-salience groups (Study 1). Low identifiers showed no preference but high identifiers preferred depersonalized leadership (Study 2). In Study 2, collectivists did not prefer depersonalized as opposed to personalized leadership, whereas individualists did, probably because collectivists focus more on the relational self.

The attribution of motives to organizational citizenship behaviors: The influence of personality, gender and ethnicity

A major area of research in the realm of Industrial/Organizational Psychology is the exploration of specific job performance behaviors such as organizational citizenship behaviors (GCBs). However, there is a dearth of research examining how peers react to OCBs and the performers of such behaviors. Bolino noted that determining how people attribute motives to these OCBs is an important yet unanswered question in industrial/organizational psychology. The present study attempted to provide insight on what observer (or rater) traits affect the motives attributed to organizational citizenship behaviors. In particular, the effects of personality traits such as the Big Five personality factors, self-monitoring, individualism-collectivism, negative affectivity and identity factors such as cultural mistrust, ethnic orientation, and perceived similarity were examined. A within-subjects survey design was used to collect data on six hypothetical organizational citizenship behaviors from a sample of 369 participants. The gender and ethnicity of the individuals performing the hypothetical organizational citizenship behaviors were manipulated (i.e., male or female; African-American, Hispanic, or White). ^ Results indicated that both similarity (t(368) = 5.13; p .01) and personality factors (R2 = .06 for genuine motives and R2 = .05 for self-serving motives) had an effect on which motive (genuine or self-serving) was attributed to organizational citizenship behaviors. Support was found for an interaction between similarity and the observer's personality trait of conscientiousness when attributing genuine motives to organizational citizenship behaviors. Finally, specific organizational citizenship behaviors such as altruism were linked to genuine motives while OCBs like conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue were associated with self-serving motives. ^

The attribution of motives to organizational citizenship behaviors : the influence of personality, gender and ethnicity

A major area of research in the realm of Industrial/Organizational Psychology is the exploration of specific job performance behaviors such as organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). However, there is a dearth of research examining how peers react to OCBs and the performers of such behaviors. Bolino noted that determining how people attribute motives to these OCBs is an important yet unanswered question in industrial/organizational psychology. The present study attempted to provide insight on what observer (or rater) traits affect the motives attributed to organizational citizenship behaviors. In particular, the effects of personality traits such as the Big Five personality factors, self-monitoring, individualism-collectivism, negative affectivity and identity factors such as cultural mistrust, ethnic orientation, and perceived similarity were examined. A within-subjects survey design was used to collect data on six hypothetical organizational citizenship behaviors from a sample of 369 participants. The gender and ethnicity of the individuals performing the hypothetical organizational citizenship behaviors were manipulated (i.e., male or female; African-American, Hispanic, or White). Results indicated that both similarity (t(368)=5.13; p .01) and personality factors (R2 =.06 for genuine motives and R2 = .05 for self-serving motives) had an effect on which motive (genuine or self-serving) was attributed to organizational citizenship behaviors. Support was found for an interaction between similarity and the observer's personality trait of conscientiousness when attributing genuine motives to organizational citizenship behaviors. Finally, specific organizational citizenship behaviors such as altruism were linked to genuine motives while OCBs like conscientiousness, sportsmanship, and civic virtue were associated with self-serving motives.

The role of individualism and collectivism as predictors of attributions for unethical work behavior: An empirical examination across two culturally diverse groups

This dissertation addresses how the cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism affect the attributions people make for unethical behavior at work. The moderating effect of ethnicity is also examined by considering two culturally diverse groups: Hispanics and Anglos. The sample for this study is a group of business graduate students from two universities in the Southeast. A 20-minute survey was distributed to master's degree students at their classroom and later on returned to the researcher. Individualism and collectivism were operationalized as by a set of attitude items, while unethical work behavior was introduced in the form of hypothetical descriptions or scenarios. Data analysis employed multiple group confirmatory factor analysis for both independent and dependent variables, and subsequently multiple group LISREL models, in order to test predictions. Results confirmed the expected link between cultural variables and attribution responses, although the role of independent variables shifted, due to the moderating effect of ethnicity, and to the nuances of each particular situation. ^

The role of individualism and collectivism as predictors of attributions for unethical work behavior : an empirical examination across two culturally diverse groups

This dissertation addresses how the cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism affect the attributions people make for unethical behavior at work. The moderating effect of ethnicity is also examined by considering two culturally diverse groups: Hispanics and Anglos. The sample for this study is a group of business graduate students from two universities in the Southeast. A 20-minute survey was distributed to master's degree students at their classroom and later on returned to the researcher. Individualism and collectivism were operationalized as by a set of attitude items, while unethical work behavior was introduced in the form of hypothetical descriptions or scenarios. Data analysis employed multiple group confirmatory factor analysis for both independent and dependent variables, and subsequently multiple group LISREL models, in order to test predictions. Results confirmed the expected link between cultural variables and attribution responses, although the role of independent variables shifted, due to the moderating effect of ethnicity, and to the nuances of each particular situation.

The exploration of consumer power in online brand communities : a comparison case study in Australia and China

Aided by the development of information technology, the balance of power in the market place is rapidly shifting from marketers towards consumers and nowhere is this more obvious than in the online environment (Denegri-Knott, Zwick, & Schroeder, 2006; Moynagh & Worsley, 2002; Newcomer, 2000; Samli, 2001). From the inception and continuous development of the Internet, consumers are becoming more empowered. They can choose what they want to click on the Internet, they can shop and transact payments, watch and download video, chat with others, be it friends or even total strangers. Especially in online communities, like-minded consumers share and exchange information, ideas and opinions. One form of online community is the online brand community, which gathers specific brand lovers. As with any social unit, people form different roles in the community and exert different effects on each other. Their interaction online can greatly influence the brand and marketers. A comprehensive understanding of the operation of this special group form is essential to advancing marketing thought and practice (Kozinets, 1999). While online communities have strongly shifted the balance of power from marketers to consumers, the current marketing literature is sparse on power theory (Merlo, Whitwell, & Lukas, 2004). Some studies have been conducted from an economic point of view (Smith, 1987), however their application to marketing has been limited. Denegri-Knott (2006) explored power based on the struggle between consumers and marketers online and identified consumer power formats such as control over the relationship, information, aggregation and participation. Her study has built a foundation for future power studies in the online environment. This research project bridges the limited marketing literature on power theory with the growing recognition of online communities among marketing academics and practitioners. Specifically, this study extends and redefines consumer power by exploring the concept of power in online brand communities, in order to better understand power structure and distribution in this context. This research investigates the applicability of the factors of consumer power identified by Denegri-Knott (2006) to the online brand community. In addition, by acknowledging the model proposed by McAlexander, Schouten, & Koenig (2002), which emphasized that community study should focus on the role of consumers and identifying multiple relationships among the community, this research further explores how member role changes will affect power relationships as well as consumer likings of the brand. As a further extension to the literature, this study also considers cultural differences and their effect on community member roles and power structure. Based on the study of Hofstede (1980), Australia and China were chosen as two distinct samples to represent differences in two cultural dimensions, namely individualism verses collectivism and high power distance verses low power distance. This contribution to the research also helps answer the research gap identified by Muñiz Jr & O'Guinn (2001), who pointed out the lack of cross cultural studies within the online brand community context. This research adopts a case study methodology to investigate the issues identified above. Case study is an appropriate research strategy to answer “how” and “why” questions of a contemporary phenomenon in real-life context (Yin, 2003). The online brand communities of “Haloforum.net” in Australia and “NGA.cn” in China were selected as two cases. In-depth interviews were used as the primary data collection method. As a result of the geographical dispersion and the preference of a certain number of participants, online synchronic interviews via MSN messenger were utilized along with the face-to-face interviews. As a supplementary approach, online observation was carried over two months, covering a two week period prior to the interviews and a six week period following the interviews. Triangulation techniques were used to strengthen the credibility and validity of the research findings (Yin, 2003). The findings of this research study suggest a new definition of power in an online brand community. This research also redefines the consumer power types and broadens the brand community model developed by McAlexander et al. (2002) in an online context by extending the various relationships between brand and members. This presents a more complete picture of how the perceived power relationships are structured in the online brand community. A new member role is discovered in the Australian online brand community in addition to the four member roles identified by Kozinets (1999), in contrast however, all four roles do not exist in the Chinese online brand community. The research proposes a model which links the defined power types and identified member roles. Furthermore, given the results of the cross-cultural comparison between Australia and China showed certain discrepancies, the research suggests that power studies in the online brand community should be country-specific. This research contributes to the body of knowledge on online consumer power, by applying it to the context of an online brand community, as well as considering factors such as cross cultural difference. Importantly, it provides insights for marketing practitioners on how to best leverage consumer power to serve brand objective in online brand communities. This, in turn, should lead to more cost effective and successful communication strategies. Finally, the study proposes future research directions. The research should be extended to communities of different sizes, to different extents of marketer control over the community, to the connection between online and offline activities within the brand community, and (given the cross-cultural findings) to different countries. In addition, a greater amount of research in this area is recommended to determine the generalizability of this study.