How does country risk matter for foreign direct investment?

In this paper, we aim to identify the political and financial risk components that matter most for the activities of multinational corporations. Our paper is the first paper to comprehensively examine the impact of various components of not only political risk but also financial risk on inward FDI, from both long-run and short-run perspectives. Using a sample of 93 countries (including 60 developing countries) for the period 1985-2007, we find that among the political risk components, government stability, socioeconomic conditions, investment profile, internal conflict, external conflict, corruption, religious tensions, democratic accountability, and ethnic tensions have a close association with FDI flows. In particular, socioeconomic conditions, investment profile, and external conflict appear to be the most influential components of political risk in attracting foreign investment. Among the financial risk components, only exchange rate stability yields statistically significant positive coefficients when estimated only for developing countries. In contrast, current account as a percentage of exports of goods and services, foreign debt as a percentage of GDP, net international liquidity as the number of months of import cover, and current account as a percentage of GDP yield negative coefficients in some specifications. Thus, multinationals do not seem to consider seriously the financial risk of the host country.

The Determinants of Country Risk in Eastern European Countries. Evidence from Sovereign Bond Spreads. Bruges European Economic Research (BEER) Papers 8/November 2006

The paper studies country risk in two Central and Eastern European countries - Bulgaria and Poland. The long run relationship between the yield differential (spread) of Eastern European national bonds (denominated in US dollars) over a US Treasury bond on one the hand and the country’s fundamentals as well as an US interest rate on the other hand, is examined. The cointegrated VAR model is used. First, the yield differentials are analyzed on a country by country basis to extract stochastic trends which are common for all bonds in a given country. Thereafter, the risk is disentangled into country and higher level risk. This paper is among the first ones which use time series data to study the evidence from sovereign bond spreads in Eastern Europe.

Relationship between franking credits and the market risk premium

In a dividend imputation tax system, equity investors have three potential sources of return: dividends, capital gains and franking (tax) credits. However, the standard procedures for estimating the market risk premium (MRP) for use in the capital asset pricing model, ignore the value of franking credits. Officer (1994) notes that if franking credits do affect the corporate cost of capital, their value must be added to the standard estimates of MRP. In the present paper, we explicitly derive the relationship between the value of franking credits (gamma) and the MRP. We show that the standard parameter estimates that have been adopted in practice (especially by Australian regulators) violate this deterministic mathematical relationship. We also show how information on dividend yields and effective tax rates bounds the values that can be reasonably used for gamma and the MRP. We make recommendations for how estimates of the MRP should be adjusted to reflect the value of franking credits in an internally consistent manner.

The risk premium for equity: implications for resource allocation, welfare and policy

Analysis of the equity premium puzzle has focused on private sector capital markets. The object of this paper is to consider the welfare and policy implications of each of the broad classes of explanations of the equity premium puzzle. As would be expected, the greater the deviation from the first-best outcome implied by a given explanation of the equity premium puzzle, the more interventionist are the implied policy conclusions. Nevertheless, even explanations of the equity premium puzzle consistent with a general consumption-based asset pricing model have important welfare and policy implications.

Fiscal imbalances, inflation and sovereign default dynamics

Resumen: La cuestión central que este artículo busca responder es como la política monetaria puede afectar el comportamiento de equilibrio de primas por riesgo soberano y cesación de pagos. El artículo se basa en el modelo de “una-tasa-interés”. La deuda pública se hace riesgosa a causa de una política fiscal activa, como en Uribe (2006), reflejando la habilidad limitada de la autoridad fiscal para controlar el superávit primario. El problema de insolvencia es debido a una oleada de mala suerte (shocks negativos que afectan el superávit primario). Pero en contraste a los resultados de Uribe, a medida que aumenta el costo de la deuda soberana (que resulta de un excedente primario débil), la cesación de pagos se anticipa y es reflejada por una creciente prima de riesgo en el país y una probabilidad de cesación de pagos. La cesación de pagos se define como un incumplimiento de un acuerdo contractual y por ende la decisión es tomada por la autoridad fiscal. Mientras tanto, objetivos conflictivos entre la autoridad monetaria y fiscal juegan un rol importante en llevar a la autoridad fiscal a la cesación de pagos sobre sus pasivos. La característica de la política del gobierno necesaria para restaurar el equilibrio después de la cesación de pagos también es analizada.

Estudo das relações de paridade de juros para a economia brasileira no período recente

O objetivo deste trabalho é verificar se o ajustamento das condições de paridade de juros por expectativa do mercado (paridade descoberta) e por prêmios de risco (paridades coberta e descoberta) leva à validação da relação de não-arbitragem subjacente, ou pelo menos a resultados econométricos mais próximos de sua validação. Para isso, combinamos taxas de retornos de instrumentos de renda fixa domésticos e norte-americanos e aplicamos o arcabouço econométrico de séries de tempo. Como primeiro passo de investigação, aplicamos a paridade de juros (descoberta e coberta) na sua forma tradicional. No passo seguinte aplicamos os testes econométricos às condições de paridade ajustadas por um prêmio de risco. No caso da PDJ, não obtivemos resultados satisfatórios, mesmo ajustando pelos prêmios de risco. Esse ajuste propiciou uma mudança nos sinais dos coeficientes na direção correta, mas a magnitude do coeficiente da desvalorização cambial efetiva passou a destoar bastante da magnitude das outras séries. Apesar de termos obtido a validade da PCJ na forma tradicional, não esperaríamos este resultado, pois isso implicaria que o prêmio de risco país seria nulo para este período. Ajustando a PCJ pelo prêmio de risco de não-pagamento passa-se a não obter co integração entre as séries, ou seja, o prêmio de risco de não-pagamento teria um comportamento independente do prêmio futuro e do diferencial de juros. As possíveis causas para a não obtenção dos resultados esperados são: intervalo amostraI menor que 3 anos, erro de medida dos dados de survey ou tentativa do Banco Central de controlar a taxa de câmbio nominal e as taxas de juros domésticas simultaneamente.

Testing for Balance Sheet Effects in Emerging Market Countries

This paper tests the presence of balance sheets effects and analyzes the implications for exchange rate policies in emerging markets. The results reveal that the emerging market bond index (EMBI) is negatively related to the banks' foreign currency leverage, and that these banks' foreign currency exposures are relatively unhedged. Panel SVAR methods using EMBI instead of advanced country lending rates find, contrary to the literature, that the amplitude of output responses to foreign interest rate shocks are smaller under relatively fixed regimes. The findings are robust to the local projections method of obtaining impulse responses, using country specific and GARCH-SVAR models.

Valorización de Cementos Pacasmayo S.A.A.

La presente valorización busca determinar el precio de la acción de Cementos Pacasmayo que refleje los fundamentos financieros de la empresa, así como su capacidad de generación de ingresos de acuerdo con sus expectativas de crecimiento. El presente trabajo se divide en nueve secciones. Para valorizar Cementos Pacasmayo, se ha iniciado con la descripción del negocio y se hace un análisis de las características de la empresa, considerando las líneas del negocio, las áreas geográficas y el proceso productivo. En la segunda sección se analiza el macroambiente internacional, regional y doméstico que nos permite entender el contexto de operación de la empresa. En una tercera sección, se ha realizado un análisis FODA y un análisis de las cinco fuerzas de Porter para determinar las fortalezas y las debilidades, así como las oportunidades y las amenazas de la empresa. En la cuarta sección se valora el posicionamiento competitivo, así como factores organizativos y sociales de Pacasmayo. Por otro lado, en la quinta sección, se ha realizado el análisis de los estados financieros para la determinación de las expectativas de crecimiento de la empresa. Considerando los resultados del análisis de la empresa, en la sexta sección se ha determinado conveniente utilizar tres métodos de valorización: flujo de caja descontado, valorización por múltiplos de empresas comparables y valorización por transacciones comparables. En la séptima sección se realiza un análisis de sensibilidad de la proyección de la rentabilidad de Pacasmayo, cuando una o varias variables que conforman el modelo, bajo las cuales se elaboraron las proyecciones financieras, se modifican (crecimiento de ventas, crecimiento perpetuo, country risk premium, costo de ventas, cambio en el WACC, costo de la deuda y cambio en el WACC perpetuo). En la octava sección se detalla el resumen de la inversión, que explica los resultados de los métodos de valoración utilizados (DCF, múltiplos de empresas comparables y valorización por transacciones comparables). Finalmente, se muestran las conclusiones y las recomendaciones para la empresa valorizada.

Anatomy of the portuguese stock market risk and return in the 1977-2012 period

This paper analyses the Portuguese stock market since it reopened in 1977, with a special focus on the evolution of the statistic and stochastic characteristics of the market return throughout this 36 year period. The market return for the period of time between 1977 and 2012 (September 28th) is estimated and then compared with the return that would have been achieved with Government bonds and treasury bills, which allows us to confirm that the hierarchy of return / risk across the different financial instruments is verified. The market risk premium for this 36 year period is also estimated and a comparison with other markets is performed, suggesting that the Portuguese market’s risk has not been compensated by an adequate return. The study also examines the evolution of the Portuguese market’s volatility in the 1977-2012 period and compares it with other markets, showing the existence of extremely high peaks during the first 11 years, but indicating a downwards trend throughout the whole period under analysis. Finally, the correlation between market returns for Portugal and for other countries and the degree of integration are estimated and their evolution throughout time is assessed, leading to the conclusion that the performance of the Portuguese stock market has become increasingly correlated with major European markets – correlation with some markets close to 0.70 from 2000 onwards-, but that country-specific risk factors are still relevant.

Essays on regulatory risk issues

Most studies around that try to verify the existence of regulatory risk look mainly at developed countries. Looking at regulatory risk in emerging market regulated sectors is no less important to improving and increasing investment in those markets. This thesis comprises three papers comprising regulatory risk issues. In the first Paper I check whether CAPM betas capture information on regulatory risk by using a two-step procedure. In the first step I run Kalman Filter estimates and then use these estimated betas as inputs in a Random-Effect panel data model. I find evidence of regulatory risk in electricity, telecommunications and all regulated sectors in Brazil. I find further evidence that regulatory changes in the country either do not reduce or even increase the betas of the regulated sectors, going in the opposite direction to the buffering hypothesis as proposed by Peltzman (1976). In the second Paper I check whether CAPM alphas say something about regulatory risk. I investigate a methodology similar to those used by some regulatory agencies around the world like the Brazilian Electricity Regulatory Agency (ANEEL) that incorporates a specific component of regulatory risk in setting tariffs for regulated sectors. I find using SUR estimates negative and significant alphas for all regulated sectors especially the electricity and telecommunications sectors. This runs in the face of theory that predicts alphas that are not statistically different from zero. I suspect that the significant alphas are related to misspecifications in the traditional CAPM that fail to capture true regulatory risk factors. On of the reasons is that CAPM does not consider factors that are proven to have significant effects on asset pricing, such as Fama and French size (ME) and price-to-book value (ME/BE). In the third Paper, I use two additional factors as controls in the estimation of alphas, and the results are similar. Nevertheless, I find evidence that the negative alphas may be the result of the regulated sectors premiums associated with the three Fama and French factors, particularly the market risk premium. When taken together, ME and ME/BE regulated sectors diminish the statistical significance of market factors premiums, especially for the electricity sector. This show how important is the inclusion of these factors, which unfortunately is scarce in emerging markets like Brazil.

Political Risk in Credit Evaluation: Empirical Studies and Survey Results

Financing trade between economic agents located in different countries is affected by many types of risks, resulting from incomplete information about the debtor, the problems of enforcing international contracts, or the prevalence of political and financial crises. Trade is important for economic development and the availability of trade finance is essential, especially for developing countries. Relatively few studies treat the topic of political risk, particularly in the context of international lending. This thesis explores new ground to identify links between political risk and international debt defaults. The core hypothesis of the study is that the default probability of debt increases with increasing political risk in the country of the borrower. The thesis consists of three essays that support the hypothesis from different angles of the credit evaluation process. The first essay takes the point of view of an international lender assessing the credit risk of a public borrower. The second investigates creditworthiness assessment of companies. The obtained results are substantiated in the third essay that deals with an extensive political risk survey among finance professionals in developing countries. The financial instruments of core interest are export credit guaranteed debt initiated between the Export Credit Agency of Finland and buyers in 145 countries between 1975 and 2006. Default events of the foreign credit counterparts are conditioned on country-specific macroeconomic variables, corporate-specific accounting information as well as political risk indicators from various international sources. Essay 1 examines debt issued to government controlled institutions and conditions public default events on traditional macroeconomic fundamentals, in addition to selected political and institutional risk factors. Confirming previous research, the study finds country indebtedness and the GDP growth rate to be significant indicators of public default. Further, it is shown that public defaults respond to various political risk factors. However, the impact of the risk varies between countries at different stages of economic development. Essay 2 proceeds by investigating political risk factors as conveivable drivers of corporate default and uses traditional accounting variables together with new political risk indicators in the credit evaluation of private debtors. The study finds links between corporate default and leverage, as well as between corporate default and the general investment climate and measeures of conflict in the debtor country. Essay 3 concludes the thesis by offering survey evidence on the impact of political risk on debt default, as perceived and experienced by 103 finance professionals in 38 developing countries. Taken together, the results of the thesis suggest that various forms of political risk are associated with international debt defaults and continue to pose great concerns for both international creditors and borrowers in developing countries. The study provides new insights on the importance of variable selection in country risk analysis, and shows how political risk is actually perceived and experienced in the riskier, often lower income countries of the global economy.

A multivariate generalized ARCH approach to modeling risk premia in forward foreign exchange rate markets

Assuming that daily spot exchange rates follow a martingale process, we derive the implied time series process for the vector of 30-day forward rate forecast errors from using weekly data. The conditional second moment matrix of this vector is modelled as a multivariate generalized ARCH process. The estimated model is used to test the hypothesis that the risk premium is a linear function of the conditional variances and covariances as suggested by the standard asset pricing theory literature. Little supportt is found for this theory; instead lagged changes in the forward rate appear to be correlated with the 'risk premium.'. © 1990.

Essays on energy derivatives pricing and financial risk management

This thesis consists of an introductory chapter (essay I) and five more empirical essays on electricity markets and CO2 spot price behaviour, derivatives pricing analysis and hedging. Essay I presents the structure of the thesis and electricity markets functioning and characteristics, as well as the type of products traded, to be analyzed on the following essays. In the second essay we conduct an empirical study on co-movements in electricity markets resorting to wavelet analysis, discussing long-term dynamics and markets integration. Essay three is about hedging performance and multiscale relationships in the German electricity spot and futures markets, also using wavelet analysis. We concentrate the investigation on the relationship between coherence evolution and hedge ratio analysis, on a time-frequency-scale approach, between spot and futures which conditions the effectiveness of the hedging strategy. Essays four, five and six are interrelated between them and with the other two previous essays given the nature of the commodity analyzed, CO2 emission allowances, traded in electricity markets. Relationships between electricity prices, primary energy fuel prices and carbon dioxide permits are analyzed on essay four. The efficiency of the European market for allowances is examined taking into account markets heterogeneity. Essay five analyzes stylized statistical properties of the recent traded asset CO2 emission allowances, for spot and futures returns, examining also the relation linking convenience yield and risk premium, for the German European Energy Exchange (EEX) between October 2005 and October 2009. The study was conducted through empirical estimations of CO2 allowances risk premium, convenience yield, and their relation. Future prices from an ex-post perspective are examined to show evidence for significant negative risk premium, or else a positive forward premium. Finally, essay six analyzes emission allowances futures hedging effectiveness, providing evidence for utility gains increases with investor’s preference over risk. Deregulation of electricity markets has led to higher uncertainty in electricity prices and by presenting these essays we try to shed new lights about structuring, pricing and hedging in this type of markets.

Semi-Parametric Weak Instrument Regressions with an Application to the Risk-Return Trade-off

Recent work shows that a low correlation between the instruments and the included variables leads to serious inference problems. We extend the local-to-zero analysis of models with weak instruments to models with estimated instruments and regressors and with higher-order dependence between instruments and disturbances. This makes this framework applicable to linear models with expectation variables that are estimated non-parametrically. Two examples of such models are the risk-return trade-off in finance and the impact of inflation uncertainty on real economic activity. Results show that inference based on Lagrange Multiplier (LM) tests is more robust to weak instruments than Wald-based inference. Using LM confidence intervals leads us to conclude that no statistically significant risk premium is present in returns on the S&P 500 index, excess holding yields between 6-month and 3-month Treasury bills, or in yen-dollar spot returns.

Choix de portefeuille de grande taille et mesures de risque pour preneurs de décision pessimistes

Cette thèse de doctorat consiste en trois chapitres qui traitent des sujets de choix de portefeuilles de grande taille, et de mesure de risque. Le premier chapitre traite du problème d’erreur d’estimation dans les portefeuilles de grande taille, et utilise le cadre d'analyse moyenne-variance. Le second chapitre explore l'importance du risque de devise pour les portefeuilles d'actifs domestiques, et étudie les liens entre la stabilité des poids de portefeuille de grande taille et le risque de devise. Pour finir, sous l'hypothèse que le preneur de décision est pessimiste, le troisième chapitre dérive la prime de risque, une mesure du pessimisme, et propose une méthodologie pour estimer les mesures dérivées. Le premier chapitre améliore le choix optimal de portefeuille dans le cadre du principe moyenne-variance de Markowitz (1952). Ceci est motivé par les résultats très décevants obtenus, lorsque la moyenne et la variance sont remplacées par leurs estimations empiriques. Ce problème est amplifié lorsque le nombre d’actifs est grand et que la matrice de covariance empirique est singulière ou presque singulière. Dans ce chapitre, nous examinons quatre techniques de régularisation pour stabiliser l’inverse de la matrice de covariance: le ridge, spectral cut-off, Landweber-Fridman et LARS Lasso. Ces méthodes font chacune intervenir un paramètre d’ajustement, qui doit être sélectionné. La contribution principale de cette partie, est de dériver une méthode basée uniquement sur les données pour sélectionner le paramètre de régularisation de manière optimale, i.e. pour minimiser la perte espérée d’utilité. Précisément, un critère de validation croisée qui prend une même forme pour les quatre méthodes de régularisation est dérivé. Les règles régularisées obtenues sont alors comparées à la règle utilisant directement les données et à la stratégie naïve 1/N, selon leur perte espérée d’utilité et leur ratio de Sharpe. Ces performances sont mesurée dans l’échantillon (in-sample) et hors-échantillon (out-of-sample) en considérant différentes tailles d’échantillon et nombre d’actifs. Des simulations et de l’illustration empirique menées, il ressort principalement que la régularisation de la matrice de covariance améliore de manière significative la règle de Markowitz basée sur les données, et donne de meilleurs résultats que le portefeuille naïf, surtout dans les cas le problème d’erreur d’estimation est très sévère. Dans le second chapitre, nous investiguons dans quelle mesure, les portefeuilles optimaux et stables d'actifs domestiques, peuvent réduire ou éliminer le risque de devise. Pour cela nous utilisons des rendements mensuelles de 48 industries américaines, au cours de la période 1976-2008. Pour résoudre les problèmes d'instabilité inhérents aux portefeuilles de grandes tailles, nous adoptons la méthode de régularisation spectral cut-off. Ceci aboutit à une famille de portefeuilles optimaux et stables, en permettant aux investisseurs de choisir différents pourcentages des composantes principales (ou dégrées de stabilité). Nos tests empiriques sont basés sur un modèle International d'évaluation d'actifs financiers (IAPM). Dans ce modèle, le risque de devise est décomposé en deux facteurs représentant les devises des pays industrialisés d'une part, et celles des pays émergents d'autres part. Nos résultats indiquent que le risque de devise est primé et varie à travers le temps pour les portefeuilles stables de risque minimum. De plus ces stratégies conduisent à une réduction significative de l'exposition au risque de change, tandis que la contribution de la prime risque de change reste en moyenne inchangée. Les poids de portefeuille optimaux sont une alternative aux poids de capitalisation boursière. Par conséquent ce chapitre complète la littérature selon laquelle la prime de risque est importante au niveau de l'industrie et au niveau national dans la plupart des pays. Dans le dernier chapitre, nous dérivons une mesure de la prime de risque pour des préférences dépendent du rang et proposons une mesure du degré de pessimisme, étant donné une fonction de distorsion. Les mesures introduites généralisent la mesure de prime de risque dérivée dans le cadre de la théorie de l'utilité espérée, qui est fréquemment violée aussi bien dans des situations expérimentales que dans des situations réelles. Dans la grande famille des préférences considérées, une attention particulière est accordée à la CVaR (valeur à risque conditionnelle). Cette dernière mesure de risque est de plus en plus utilisée pour la construction de portefeuilles et est préconisée pour compléter la VaR (valeur à risque) utilisée depuis 1996 par le comité de Bâle. De plus, nous fournissons le cadre statistique nécessaire pour faire de l’inférence sur les mesures proposées. Pour finir, les propriétés des estimateurs proposés sont évaluées à travers une étude Monte-Carlo, et une illustration empirique en utilisant les rendements journaliers du marché boursier américain sur de la période 2000-2011.