Role of self-efficacy in predicting outcomes from a programme for controlled drinking

Predicted the outcomes of 40 men and 20 women who attended a controlled drinking program in a general hospital. Measures included a behavioral interview, the Alcohol Dependence Scale (ADS), the Severity of Alcohol Dependence Questionnaire (SADQ) described by T. Stockwell et al (1979), and a problem drinking self-efficacy scale (PDSES). Substantial reductions in drinking appeared after the program and appeared to be sustained over a 6-mo follow-up. Intake dropped from 11.3 drinks per day to 2.2 drinks during follow-up. Drinking history and alcohol dependence (as measured by the SADQ, but not the ADS) were significant predictors of alcohol consumption during follow-up. Predictive utility of the PDSES was confirmed. PDSES administered at the end of the program significantly predicted alcohol consumption over the next 6 mo.

Part-time work of high school students and impact on educational outcomes

While increasing numbers of young high school students engage in part-time work, there is no consensus about its impact on educational outcomes. Indeed this field has had a dearth of research. The present paper presents a review of recent research, primarily from Australia and the US, although it is acknowledged that there are considerable contextual differences. Suggestions for school counsellors to harness the students’ experiences to assist in educational and career decision-making are presented.

Alliance supervision to enhance client outcomes

Clinical supervision has traditionally been considered an important part of training and the professional development of therapists, being rated highly in the experience of trainees as well as practitioners in the field (Orlinsky, Botermans, & Ronnestad, 2001; Steven, Goodyear, & Robertson, 1998). However, the evidence base for any supervision approach improving outcomes with clients is lacking (Bambling, & King, 2000). In this chapter an alternate non‐approach bound model of supervision is presented that has preliminary evidence for enhancing client outcomes in brief psychological treatment. The focus of this Three‐Stage Alliance Supervision (TSAS) prioritises the interpersonal process of counselling as an independent factor as well as the core construct through which all technical interventions should be given. Below is a basic introduction to the supervision model used in the first empirical investigation of supervision and client outcome (Bambling, King, Raue, Schweitzer, & Lambert 2006). While this chapter does not constitute the supervision manual it should provide the reader with sufficient knowledge to adopt an alliance focus in their supervision practice.

Trauma type and posttrauma outcomes : differences between survivors of motor vehicle accidents, sexual assault, and bereavement

Research examining post-trauma pathology indicates negative outcomes can differ as a function of the type of trauma experienced. Such research has yet to be published when looking at positive post-trauma changes. Ninety-Four survivors of trauma, forming three groups, completed the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI) and Impact of Events Scale-Revised (IES-R). Groups comprised survivors of i) sexual abuse ii) motor vehicle accidents iii) bereavement. Results indicted differences in growth between the groups with the bereaved reporting higher levels of growth than other survivors and sexual abuse survivors demonstrated higher levels of PTSD symptoms than the other groups. However, this did not preclude sexual abuse survivors from also reporting moderate levels of growth. Results are discussed with relation to fostering growth through clinical practice.

Effect of clear zone widths on run-off-road crash outcomes

Current guidelines on clear zone selection and roadside hazard management adopt the US approach based on the likelihood of roadside encroachment by drivers. This approach is based on the available research conducted in the 1960s and 70s. Over time, questions have been raised regarding the robustness and applicability of this research in Australasia in 2010 and in the Safe System context. This paper presents a review of the fundamental research relating to selection of clear zones. Results of extensive rural highway statistical data modelling suggest that a significant proportion of run-off-road to the left casualty crashes occurs in clear zones exceeding 13 m. They also show that the risk of run-off-road to the left casualty crashes was 21% lower where clear zones exceeded 8 m when compared with clear zones in the 4 – 8 m range. The paper discusses a possible approach to selection of clear zones based on managing crash outcomes, rather than on the likelihood of roadside encroachment which is the basis for the current practice. It is expected that this approach would encourage selection of clear zones wider than 8 m when the combination of other road features suggests higher than average casualty crash risk.

The influence of safety ownership on occupational road safety outcomes

Questionnaires and interviews were conducted with employees and senior managers from three Australian organisations to explore the relationship between perceived managerial ownership of safety responsibilities and occupational road safety. It was found that the perceived authority of the person primarily responsible for managing road risks and perceived shared ownership of safety tasks were both significant independent predictors of safer driving behaviours. It was identified that the position of the person accepting primary risk management responsibilities was typically a member of the OHS team and typically in a management position. The extent that ownership was shared across members within the researched organisations varied, with personnel from OHS and fleet management typically accepting partial ownership of managing occupational road risks. Based on the findings, several recommendations are made to assist practitioners in managing occupational road risks.

Children of substance-using mothers : child health engagement and child protection outcomes

Aim: Maternal substance use has been associated with a range of child risk factors. The study investigated the relationship between engagement with child health services and child protection outcomes for children of substance using mothers. ----- ----- Methods: A sample of 119 children of mothers who disclosed opiate, amphetamine or methadone use during a maternity admission between 2000 and 2003, as included in a previous matched co-hort study1, were included in the current study. Statutory child protection agency and child health engagement information for the first two years of life, was obtained. The relationship between type of maternal substance use, child health engagement and child protection outcomes was examined. ----- ----- Results: Seventy two percent of study group infants were engaged with child health services during the first two years of life. Chi square analysis showed no significant relationship between child health engagement and child protection reports. Child health engagement was associated with decreased substantiated child protection notifications for children of methadone using mothers, but not for children of illicit substance users. ----- ----- Conclusions: Almost a quarter of identified children of substance using mothers are not accessing standard child health services in their first two years of life. This study provides support for increased attention to the provision of child health services for children of methadone using mothers. Further research into effective intervention strategies for children of illicit substance using mothers is indicated.

Adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies predict posttrauma outcomes in ambulance personnel

Attending potentially dangerous and traumatic incidents is inherent in the role of emergency workers, yet there is a paucity of literature aimed at examining variables that impact on the outcomes of such exposure. Coping has been implicated in adjusting to trauma in other contexts, and this study explored the effectiveness of coping strategies in relation to positive and negative posttrauma outcomes in the emergency services environment. One hundred twenty-five paramedics completed a survey battery including the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory (PTGI; Tedeschi & Calhoun, 1996), the Impact of Events Scale–Revised (IES-R; Weiss & Marmar, 1997), and the Revised-COPE (Zuckerman & Gagne, 2003). Results from the regression analysis demonstrated that specific coping strategies were differentially associated with positive and negative posttrauma outcomes. The research contributes to a more comprehensive understanding regarding the effectiveness of coping strategies employed by paramedics in managing trauma, with implications for their psychological well-being as well as the training and support services available.

The relative impact of work-related stress, life stress and driving environment stress on driving outcomes

Previous research has shown the association between stress and crash involvement. The impact of stress on road safety may also be mediated by behaviours including cognitive lapses, errors, and intentional traffic violations. This study aimed to provide a further understanding of the impact that stress from different sources may have upon driving behaviour and road safety. It is asserted that both stress extraneous to the driving environment and stress directly elicited by driving must be considered part of a dynamic system that may have a negative impact on driving behaviours. Two hundred and forty-seven public sector employees from Queensland, Australia, completed self-report measures examining demographics, subjective work-related stress, daily hassles, and aspects of general mental health. Additionally, the Driver Behaviour Questionnaire (DBQ) and the Driver Stress Inventory (DSI) were administered. All participants drove for work purposes regularly, however the study did not specifically focus on full-time professional drivers. Confirmatory factor analysis of the predictor variables revealed three factors: DSI negative affect; DSI risk taking; and extraneous influences (daily hassles, work-related stress, and general mental health). Moderate intercorrelations were found between each of these factors confirming the ‘spillover’ effect. That is, driver stress is reciprocally related to stress in other domains including work and domestic life. Structural equation modelling (SEM) showed that the DSI negative affect factor influenced both lapses and errors, whereas the DSI risk-taking factor was the strongest influence on violations. The SEMs also confirmed that daily hassles extraneous to the driving environment may influence DBQ lapses and violations independently. Accordingly, interventions may be developed to increase driver awareness of the dangers of excessive emotional responses to both driving events and daily hassles (e.g. driving fast to ‘blow off steam’ after an argument). They may also train more effective strategies for self-regulation of emotion and coping when encountering stressful situations on the road.

Narrative therapy for adults with major depressive disorder: Improved symptom and interpersonal outcomes

Abstract This study investigated depressive symptom and interpersonal relatedness outcomes from eight sessions of manualized narrative therapy for 47 adults with major depressive disorder. Post-therapy, depressive symptom improvement (d=1.36) and proportions of clients achieving reliable improvement (74%), movement to the functional population (61%), and clinically significant improvement (53%) were comparable to benchmark research outcomes. Post-therapy interpersonal relatedness improvement (d=.62) was less substantial than for symptoms. Three-month follow-up found maintenance of symptom, but not interpersonal gains. Benchmarking and clinical significance analyses mitigated repeated measure design limitations, providing empirical evidence to support narrative therapy for adults with major depressive disorder. RÉSUMÉ Cette étude a investigué les symptômes dépressifs et les relations interpersonnels d'une thérapie narrative en huit séances chez 47 adultes souffrant d'un trouble dépressif majeur. Après la thérapie, l'amélioration des symptômes dépressifs (d=1.36) et la proportion de clients atteignant un changement significatif (74%), le mouvement vers la population fonctionnelle (61%), enfin l'amélioration clinique significative (53%) étaient comparables aux performances des études de résultats. L'amélioration des relations interpersonnelles (d=0.62) était inférieure à l'amélioration symptomatique. Le suivi à trois mois montrait un maintien des gains symptomatiques mais pas pour les relations interpersonnelles. L’évaluation des performances et les analyses de significativité clinique modèrent les limitations du plan de recherche à mesures répétées et apportent une preuve empirique qui étaie l'efficacité des thérapies narratives pour des adultes avec un trouble dépressif majeur. Este estudo investigou sintomas depressivos e resultados interpessoais relacionados em oito sessões de terapia narrativa manualizada para 47 adultos com perturbação depressiva major. No pós terapia, melhoria de sintomas depressivos (d=1,36) e proporção de clientes que alcançam melhoria válida (74%), movimento para a população funcional (61%) e melhoria clinicamente significativa (53%) foram comparáveis com os resultados da investigação reportados. As melhorias pós terapia nos resultados interpessoais relacionados (d=.62) foi menos substancial do que para os sintomas. Aos três meses de seguimento houve a manutenção dos sintomas mas não dos ganhos interpessoais. As análises de benchemarking e de melhoria clinicamente significativas atenuam as limitações de um design de medidas repetidas, fornecendo evidência empírica para a terapia narrativa para adultos com perturbação depressiva major. Questo lavoro ha valutato i sintomi depressivi e gli outcome nella capacità di relazionarsi a livello interpersonale in 8 sedute di psicoterapia narrativa manualizzata in un gruppo di 47 adulti con depressione maggiore. I risultati ottenuti relativamente a: post terapy, miglioramento dei sintomi depressivi (d_1.36), proporzione di pazienti che hanno raggiunto un miglioramento affidabile e consistente (74%), movimento verso il funzionamento atteso nella popolazione (61%) e miglioramento clinicamente significativo (53%) sono paragonabili ai valori di riferimento della ricerca sull'outcome. I miglioramento della capacità di relazionarsi valutata alla fine del trattamento (d_.62) si è rivelata meno sostanziale rispetto ai sintomi. Un follow-up dopo 3 mesi ha dimostrato che il miglioramento sintomatologico è stato mantenuto, ma non quello degli obiettivi interpersonali. Valori di riferimento e analisi della significatività clinica hanno fatto fronte ai limiti del disegno a misure ripetute, offrendo prove empiriche sulla rilevanza della terapia narrativa in pazienti adulti con depressione maggiore

Microbial colonisation of human follicular fluid and adverse in vitro fertilisation outcomes

This study, investigating 263 women undergoing trans-vaginal oocyte retrieval for in vitro fertilisation (IVF) found that microorganisms colonising follicular fluid contributed to adverse IVF (pre-implantation) and pregnancy (post-implantation) outcomes including poor quality embryos, failed pregnancy and early pregnancy loss (< 37 weeks gestation). Some microorganisms also showed in vitro growth patterns in liquid media that appeared to be enhanced by the hormonal stimulation protocol used for oocyte retrieval. Elaborated cytokines within follicular fluid were also associated with adverse IVF outcomes. This study is imperative because infertility affects 16% of the human population and the numbers of couples needing assistance continues to increase. Despite significant improvements in the technical aspects of assisted reproductive technologies (ART), the live birth rate has not increased proportionally. Overt genital tract infection has been associated with both infertility and adverse pregnancy outcomes (including miscarriage and preterm birth) as a direct result of the infection or the host response to it. Importantly, once inflammation had become established, medical treatment often failed to prevent these significant adverse outcomes. Current evaluations of fertility focus on the ovary as a site of steroid hormone production and ovulation. However, infertility as a result of subclinical colonisation of the ovary has not been reported. Furthermore, identification of the microorganisms present in follicular fluid and the local cytokine profile may provide clinicians with an early indication of the prognosis for IVF treatment in infertile couples, thus allowing antimicrobial treatment and/or counselling about possible IVF failure. During an IVF cycle, multiple oocytes undergo maturation in vivo in response to hormonal hyperstimulation. Oocytes for in vitro insemination are collected trans-vaginally. The follicular fluid that bathes the maturing oocyte in vivo, usually is discarded as part of the IVF procedure, but provides a unique opportunity to investigate microbial causes of adverse IVF outcomes. Some previous studies have identified follicular fluid markers that predict IVF pregnancy outcomes. However, there have not been any detailed microbiological studies of follicular fluid. For this current study, paired follicular fluid and vaginal secretion samples were collected from women undergoing IVF cycles to determine whether microorganisms in follicular fluid were associated with adverse IVF outcomes. Microorganisms in follicular fluid were regarded as either "colonisers" or "contaminants"; colonisers, if they were unique to the follicular fluid sample, and contaminants if the same microorganisms were detected in the vaginal and follicular fluid samples indicating that the follicular fluid was merely contaminated during the oocyte retrieval process. Quite unexpectedly, by these criteria, we found that follicular fluid from approximately 30% of all subjects was colonised with bacteria. Fertile and infertile women with colonised follicular fluid had decreased embryo transfer rates and decreased pregnancy rates compared to women with contaminated follicular fluids. The observation that follicular fluid was not always sterile, but contained a diverse range of microorganisms, is novel. Many of the microorganisms we detected in follicular fluid are known opportunistic pathogens that have been detected in upper genital tract infections and are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Bacteria were able to survive for at least 28 weeks in vitro, in cultures of follicular fluid. Within 10 days of establishing these in vitro cultures, several species (Lactobacillus spp., Bifidobacterium spp., Propionibacterium spp., Streptococcus spp. and Salmonella entericus) had formed biofilms. Biofilms play a major role in microbial pathogenicity and persistence. The propensity of microbial species to form biofilms in follicular fluid suggests that successful treatment of these infections with antimicrobials may be difficult. Bifidobacterium spp. grew, in liquid media, only if concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone were similar to those achieved in vivo during an IVF cycle. In contrast, the growth of Streptococcus agalactiae and Escherichia coli was inhibited or abolished by the addition of these hormones to culture medium. These data suggest that the likelihood of microorganisms colonising follicular fluid and the species of bacteria involved is influenced by the stage of the menstrual cycle and, in the case of IVF, the nature and dose of steroid hormones administered for the maturation of multiple oocytes in vivo. Our findings indicate that the elevated levels of steroid hormones during an IVF cycle may influence the microbial growth within follicular fluid, suggesting that the treatment itself will impact on the microflora present in the female upper genital tract during pre-conception and early post-conception phases of the cycle. The effect of the host immune response on colonising bacteria and on the outcomes of IVF also was investigated. White blood cells reportedly compose between 5% and 15% of the cell population in follicular fluid. The follicular membrane is semi-permeable and cells are actively recruited as part of the normal menstrual cycle and in response to microorganisms. A previous study investigated follicular fluid cytokines from infertile women and fertile oocyte donors undergoing IVF, and concluded that there were no significant differences in the cytokine concentrations between the two groups. However, other studies have reported differences in the follicular fluid cytokine levels associated with infertile women with endometriosis or polycystic ovary syndrome. In this study, elevated levels of interleukin (IL)-1 á, IL-1 â and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in vaginal fluid were associated with successful fertilisation, which may be useful marker for successful fertilisation outcomes for women trying to conceive naturally or prior to oocyte retrieval for IVF. Elevated levels of IL-6, IL-12p40, granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCSF) and interferon-gamma (IFN ã) in follicular fluid were associated with successful embryo transfer. Elevated levels of pro-inflammatory IL-18 and decreased levels of anti-inflammatory IL-10 were identified in follicular fluid from women with idiopathic infertility. Successful fertilisation and implantation is dependent on a controlled pro-inflammatory environment, involving active recruitment of pro-inflammatory mediators to the genital tract as part of the menstrual cycle and early pregnancy. However, ongoing pregnancy requires an enhanced anti-inflammatory environment to ensure that the maternal immune system does not reject the semi-allergenic foetus. The pro-inflammatory skew in the follicular fluid of women with idiopathic infertility, correlates with normal rates of fertilisation, embryo discard and embryo transfer, observed for this cohort, which were similar to the outcomes observed for fertile women. However, their pregnancy rate was reduced compared to fertile women. An altered local immune response in follicular fluid may provide a means of explaining infertility in this cohort, previously defined as 'idiopathic'. This study has found that microorganisms colonising follicular fluid may have contributed to adverse IVF and pregnancy outcomes. Follicular fluid bathes the cumulus oocyte complex during the in vivo maturation process, and microorganisms in the fluid, their metabolic products or the local immune response to these microorganisms may result in damage to the oocytes, degradation of the cumulus or contamination of the IVF culture system. Previous studies that have discounted bacterial contamination of follicular fluid as a cause of adverse IVF outcomes failed to distinguish between bacteria that were introduced into the follicular fluid at the time of trans-vaginal oocyte retrieval and those that colonised the follicular fluid. Those bacteria that had colonised the fluid may have had time to form biofilms and to elicit a local immune response. Failure to draw this distinction has previously prevented consideration of bacterial colonisation of follicular fluid as a cause of adverse IVF outcomes. Several observations arising from this study are of significance to IVF programs. Follicular fluid is not always sterile and colonisation of follicular fluid is a cause of adverse IVF and pregnancy outcomes. Hormonal stimulation associated with IVF may influence whether follicular fluid is colonised and enhance the growth of specific species of bacteria within follicular fluid. Bacteria in follicular fluid may form biofilms and literature has reported that this may influence their susceptibility to antibiotics. Monitoring the levels of selected cytokines within vaginal secretions may inform fertilisation outcomes. This study has identified novel factors contributing to adverse IVF outcomes and that are most likely to affect also natural conception outcomes. Early intervention, possibly using antimicrobial or immunological therapies may reduce the need for ART and improve reproductive health outcomes for all women.

Online counselling for enhancing relationships

Most young people are students attending school where their peer relationships impact on their educational outcomes. At the end of the first decade of the twenty-first century, young people also depend on the communication technologies to assist them with their developing relationships. Increasingly this connectedness to the peer group is being carried out both in the physical and virtual worlds as evidenced by the rapid increase in the membership of social network internet sites. However, schools seem reluctant to implement educational processes that utilize the social networking sites that young people inhabit. In fact, schools seem to be only emphasizing the dangers of enhancing peer relationships do not seem to be acknowledged. Online school counselling could be one way for schools to promote the positive uses of technology to contribute to young people's education and to enhance their social relationships and connectedness.

The relationship between lower intelligence, crime and custodial outcomes : a brief literary review of a vulnerable group

The relationship between intellectual functioning and criminal offending has received considerable focus within the literature. While there remains debate regarding the existence (and strength) of this relationship, there is a wider consensus that individuals with below average functioning (in particular cognitive impairments) are disproportionately represented within the prison population. This paper focuses on research that has implications for the effective management of lower functioning individuals within correctional environments as well as the successful rehabilitation and release of such individuals back into the community. This includes a review of the literature regarding the link between lower intelligence and offending and the identification of possible factors that either facilitate (or confound) this relationship. The main themes to emerge from this review are that individuals with lower intellectual functioning continue to be disproportionately represented in custodial settings and that there is a need to increase the provision of specialised programs to cater for their needs. Further research is also needed into a range of areas including: (1) the reason for this over-representation in custodial settings, (2) the existence and effectiveness of rehabilitation and release programs that cater for lower IQ offenders, (3) the effectiveness of custodial alternatives for this group (e.g. intensive corrections orders) and (4) what post-custodial release services are needed to reduce the risk of recidivism.

The increased popularity of mopeds and motor scooters : exploring usage patterns and safety outcomes

Increased use of powered two-wheelers (PTWs) often underlies increases in the number of reported crashes, promoting research into PTW safety. PTW riders are overrepresented in crash and injury statistics relative to exposure and, as such, are considered vulnerable road users. PTW use has increased substantially over the last decade in many developed countries. One such country is Australia, where moped and scooter use has increased at a faster rate than motorcycle use in recent years. Increased moped use is particularly evident in the State of Queensland which is one of four Australian jurisdictions where moped riding is permitted for car licence holders and a motorcycle licence is not required. A moped is commonly a small motor scooter and is limited to a maximum design speed of 50 km/h and a maximum engine cylinder capacity of 50 cubic centimetres. Scooters exceeding either of these specifications are classed as motorcycles in all Australian jurisdictions. While an extensive body of knowledge exists on motorcycle safety, some of which is relevant to moped and scooter safety, the latter PTW types have received comparatively little focused research attention. Much of the research on moped safety to date has been conducted in Europe where they have been popular since the mid 20th century, while some studies have also been conducted in the United States. This research is of limited relevance to Australia due to socio-cultural, economic, regulatory and environmental differences. Moreover, while some studies have compared motorcycles to mopeds in terms of safety, no research to date has specifically examined the differences and similarities between mopeds and larger scooters, or between larger scooters and motorcycles. To address the need for a better understanding of moped and scooter use and safety, the current program of research involved three complementary studies designed to achieve the following aims: (1) develop better knowledge and understanding of moped and scooter usage trends and patterns; and (2) determine the factors leading to differences in moped, scooter and motorcycle safety. Study 1 involved six-monthly observations of PTW types in inner city parking areas of Queensland’s capital city, Brisbane, to monitor and quantify the types of PTW in use over a two year period. Study 2 involved an analysis of Queensland PTW crash and registration data, primarily comparing the police-reported crash involvement of mopeds, scooters and motorcycles over a five year period (N = 7,347). Study 3 employed both qualitative and quantitative methods to examine moped and scooter usage in two components: (a) four focus group discussions with Brisbane-based Queensland moped and scooter riders (N = 23); and (b) a state-wide survey of Queensland moped and scooter riders (N = 192). Study 1 found that of the PTW types parked in inner city Brisbane over the study period (N = 2,642), more than one third (36.1%) were mopeds or larger scooters. The number of PTWs observed increased at each six-monthly phase, but there were no significant changes in the proportions of PTW types observed across study phases. There were no significant differences in the proportions or numbers of PTW type observed by season. Study 2 revealed some important differences between mopeds, scooters and motorcycles in terms of safety and usage through analysis of crash and registration data. All Queensland PTW registrations doubled between 2001 and 2009, but there was an almost fifteen-fold increase in moped registrations. Mopeds subsequently increased as a proportion of Queensland registered PTWs from 1.2 percent to 8.8 percent over this nine year period. Moped and scooter crashes increased at a faster rate than motorcycle crashes over the five year study period from July 2003 to June 2008, reflecting their relatively greater increased usage. Crash rates per 10,000 registrations for the study period were only slightly higher for mopeds (133.4) than for motorcycles and scooters combined (124.8), but estimated crash rates per million vehicle kilometres travelled were higher for mopeds (6.3) than motorcycles and scooters (1.7). While the number of crashes increased for each PTW type over the study period, the rate of crashes per 10,000 registrations declined by 40 percent for mopeds compared with 22 percent for motorcycles and scooters combined. Moped and scooter crashes were generally less severe than motorcycle crashes and this was related to the particular crash characteristics of the PTW types rather than to the PTW types themselves. Compared to motorcycle and moped crashes, scooter crashes were less likely to be single vehicle crashes, to involve a speeding or impaired rider, to involve poor road conditions, or to be attributed to rider error. Scooter and moped crashes were more likely than motorcycle crashes to occur on weekdays, in lower speed zones and at intersections. Scooter riders were older on average (39) than moped (32) and motorcycle (35) riders, while moped riders were more likely to be female (36%) than scooter (22%) or motorcycle riders (7%). The licence characteristics of scooter and motorcycle riders were similar, with moped riders more likely to be licensed outside of Queensland and less likely to hold a full or open licence. The PTW type could not be identified in 15 percent of all cases, indicating a need for more complete recording of vehicle details in the registration data. The focus groups in Study 3a and the survey in Study 3b suggested that moped and scooter riders are a heterogeneous population in terms of demographic characteristics, riding experience, and knowledge and attitudes regarding safety and risk. The self-reported crash involvement of Study 3b respondents suggests that most moped and scooter crashes result in no injury or minor injury and are not reported to police. Study 3 provided some explanation for differences observed in Study 2 between mopeds and scooters in terms of crash involvement. On the whole, scooter riders were older, more experienced, more likely to have undertaken rider training and to value rider training programs. Scooter riders were also more likely to use protective clothing and to seek out safety-related information. This research has some important practical implications regarding moped and scooter use and safety. While mopeds and scooters are generally similar in terms of usage, and their usage has increased, scooter riders appear to be safer than moped riders due to some combination of superior skills and safer riding behaviour. It is reasonable to expect that mopeds and scooters will remain popular in Queensland in future and that their usage may further increase, along with that of motorcycles. Future policy and planning should consider potential options for encouraging moped riders to acquire better riding skills and greater safety awareness. While rider training and licensing appears an obvious potential countermeasure, the effectiveness of rider training has not been established and other options should also be strongly considered. Such options might include rider education and safety promotion, while interventions could also target other road users and urban infrastructure. Future research is warranted in regard to moped and scooter safety, particularly where the use of those PTWs has increased substantially from low levels. Research could address areas such as rider training and licensing (including program evaluations), the need for more detailed and reliable data (particularly crash and exposure data), protective clothing use, risks associated with lane splitting and filtering, and tourist use of mopeds. Some of this research would likely be relevant to motorcycle use and safety, as well as that of mopeds and scooters.