Why Don't Students Talk? Causes of Foreign Language Communication Apprehension in English Classes: A Comparison of High Apprehensive and Low Apprehensive Upper Secondary Students.

OBJECTIVES. Oral foreign language skills are an integral part of one's social, academic and professional competence. This can be problematic for those suffering from foreign language communication apprehension (CA), or a fear of speaking a foreign language. CA manifests itself, for example, through feelings of anxiety and tension, physical arousal and avoidance of foreign language communication situations. According to scholars, foreign language CA may impede the language learning process significantly and have detrimental effects on one's language learning, academic achievement and career prospects. Drawing on upper secondary students' subjective experiences of communication situations in English as a foreign language, this study seeks, first, to describe, analyze and interpret why upper secondary students experience English language communication apprehension in English as a foreign language (EFL) classes. Second, this study seeks to analyse what the most anxiety-arousing oral production tasks in EFL classes are, and which features of different oral production tasks arouse English language communication apprehension and why. The ultimate objectives of the present study are to raise teachers' awareness of foreign language CA and its features, manifestations and impacts in foreign language classes as well as to suggest possible ways to minimize the anxiety-arousing features in foreign language classes. METHODS. The data was collected in two phases by means of six-part Likert-type questionnaires and theme interviews, and analysed using both quantitative and qualitative methods. The questionnaire data was collected in spring 2008. The respondents were 122 first-year upper secondary students, 68 % of whom were girls and 31 % of whom were boys. The data was analysed by statistical methods using SPSS software. The theme interviews were conducted in spring 2009. The interviewees were 11 second-year upper secondary students aged 17 to 19, who were chosen by purposeful selection on the basis of their English language CA level measured in the questionnaires. Six interviewees were classified as high apprehensives and five as low apprehensives according to their score in the foreign language CA scale in the questionnaires. The interview data was coded and thematized using the technique of content analysis. The analysis and interpretation of the data drew on a comparison of the self-reports of the highly apprehensive and low apprehensive upper secondary students. RESULTS. The causes of English language CA in EFL classes as reported by the students were both internal and external in nature. The most notable causes were a low self-assessed English proficiency, a concern over errors, a concern over evaluation, and a concern over the impression made on others. Other causes related to a high English language CA were a lack of authentic oral practise in EFL classes, discouraging teachers and negative experiences of learning English, unrealistic internal demands for oral English performance, high external demands and expectations for oral English performance, the conversation partner's higher English proficiency, and the audience's large size and unfamiliarity. The most anxiety-arousing oral production tasks in EFL classes were presentations or speeches with or without notes in front of the class, acting in front of the class, pair debates with the class as audience, expressing thoughts and ideas to the class, presentations or speeches without notes while seated, group debates with the class as audience, and answering to the teacher's questions involuntarily. The main features affecting the anxiety-arousing potential of an oral production task were a high degree of attention, a large audience, a high degree of evaluation, little time for preparation, little linguistic support, and a long duration.

Studies on Causes of Multiple Sclerosis : From Genes to Transcriptome

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is the most common cause of neurological disability in young adults, affecting more than two million people worldwide. It manifests as a chronic inflammation in the central nervous system (CNS) and causes demyelination and neurodegeneration. Depending on the location of the demyelinated plaques and axonal loss, a variety of symptoms can be observed including deficits in vision, coordination, balance and movement. With a typical age of onset at 20-40 years, the social and economic impacts of MS on lives of the patients and their families are considerable. Unfortunately the current treatments are relatively inefficient and the development of more effective treatments has been impeded by our limited understanding of the causes and pathogenesis of MS. Risk of MS is higher in biological relatives of MS patients than in the general population. Twin and adoption studies have shown that familial clustering of MS is explained by shared genetic factors rather than by shared familial environment. While the involvement of the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) genes was first discovered four decades ago, additional genetic risk factors have only recently been identified through genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Current evidence suggests that MS is a highly polygenic disease with perhaps hundreds of common variants with relatively modest effects contributing to susceptibility. Despite extensive research, the majority of these risk factors still remain to be identified. In this thesis the aim was to identify novel genes and pathways involved in MS. Using genome-wide microarray technology, gene expression levels in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from 12 MS patients and 15 controls were profiled and more than 600 genes with altered expression in MS were identified. Three of five selected findings, DEFA1A3, LILRA4 and TNFRSF25, were successfully replicated in an independent sample. Increased expression of DEFA1A3 in MS is a particularly interesting observation, because its elevated levels have previously been reported also in several other autoimmune diseases. A systematic review of seven microarray studies was then performed leading to identification of 229 genes, in which either decreased or increased expression in MS had been reported in at least two studies. In general there was relatively little overlap across the experiments: 11 of the 229 genes had been reported in three studies and only HSPA1A in four studies. Nevertheless, these 229 genes were associated with several immunological pathways including interleukin pathways related to type 2 and type 17 helper T cells and regulatory T cells. However, whether these pathways are involved in causing MS or related to secondary processes activated after disease onset remains to be investigated. The 229 genes were also compared with loci identified in published MS GWASs. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) in 17 of the 229 loci had been reported to be associated with MS with P-value less than 0.0001 including variants in CXCR4 and SAPS2, which were the only loci where evidence for correlation between the associated variant and gene expression was found. The CXCR4 variant was further tested for association with MS in a large case-control sample and the previously reported suggestive association was replicated (P-value is 0.0004). Finally, common genetic variants in candidate genes, which had been selected on the basis of showing association with other autoimmune diseases (MYO9B) or showing differential expression in MS in our study (DEFA1A3, LILRA4 and TNFRSF25), were tested for association with MS, but no evidence of association was found. In conclusion, through a systematic review of genome-wide expression studies in MS we have identified several promising candidate genes and pathways for future studies. In addition, we have replicated a previously suggested association of a SNP variant upstream of CXCR4 with MS. Keywords: autoimmune disease, common variant, CXCR4, DEFA1A3, HSPA1A,gene expression, genetic association, GWAS, MS, multiple sclerosis, systematic review

The Rise and Fall of Water Net (Hydrodictyon reticulatum) in New Zealand

During the late 1980s to early 1990s a range of aquatic habitats in the central North Island of New Zealand were invaded by the filamentous green alga, water net Hydrodictyon reticulatum (Linn. Lagerheim). The alga caused significant economic and recreational impacts at major sites of infestation, but it was also associated with enhanced invertebrate numbers and was the likely cause of an improvement in the trout fishery. The causes of prolific growth of water net and the range of control options pursued are reviewed. The possible causes of its sudden decline in 1995 are considered, including physical factors, increase in grazer pressure, disease, and loss of genetic vigour.

Characteristics and causes of Texas marine strandings

Three major mass mortality events occurred on the upper Texas coast during 1994, from January through the second week of May. These events were distinguished by unusually large numbers of dead dolphins, sea turtles, and fishes washing ashore on Texas beaches. The beach stranding of dead animals began in January with bottlenose dolphins. By the end of March, 142 dolphins had washed ashore as compared to about 40 expected. By the latter part of April, dolphin mortalities declined but stranding of dead and comatose sea turtles increased. By the end of April, at least 127 sea turtles had stranded on the Texas coast since the beginning of the year, about double the expected number. Then, during May and June, a third mortality event began with a massive fish kill and more turtle deaths. By the middle of May, mortalities of all species as indicated by beach strandings returned to within expected levels. Nevertheless, 1994 stood out as a record year of marine mass mortalities in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico. (PDF file contains 94 pages.)

Analysis of fish diversion efficiency and survivorship in the fish return system at San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station

This study examined the efficiency of fish diversion and survivorship of diverted fishes in the San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station Fish Return System in 1984 and 1985. Generally, fishes were diverted back to the ocean with high frequency, particularly in 1984. Most species were diverted at rates of 80% or more. Over 90% of the most abundant species, Engraulis mordax, were diverted. The system worked particularly well for strong-swimming forms such as Paralobrax clothratus, Atherinopsis californiensis, and Xenistius californiensis, and did not appreciably divert weaker-swimming species such as Porichthys notatus, Heterostichus rostratus, and Syngnathus sp. Return rates of some species were not as high in 1985 as in 1984. Individuals of most tested species survived both transit through the fish return system and 96 hours in a holding net. Some species, such as E. mordox, X. californiensis, and Umbrina roncador, experienced tittle or no mortality. Survivorship of Seriphus politus was highly variable and no Anchoa delicatissima survived. (PDF file contains 22 pages.)

Predictions of fish yields and the status of the Kainji Lake fishery, 1998

Length frequency data was collected for the 6 main species from the Kainji Lake fishery for up to 16 months. Growth parameters were estimated and used for virtual - population and length based cohort analysis. The results from cohort analysis suggest that before the ban on beach seines the maximum economic yield from the fishery was overshot by 70%. Yield per recruit analysis showed that the fish are caught far below their optimum size. Fishing gears and the timing responsible for this early mortality have been identified. After the eradication of seines from the lake a 10% increase in total catch revenue can be expected from the fishery. This is equivalent to an increase in income of Naira 18,300 per annum for each fishing entrepreneur using other methods. A scenario for the regulation of cast net mesh size together with the ban of beach seines has been presented. A further increase of Naira 142 million (N25,500 per entrepreneur) can be anticipated if this is implemented by the Kainji Lake Fisheries Management and Conservation Unit. It is expected that the annual increase in fishing effort presently experienced will cause future yields to decline. The rate of the decline has been reduced by the eradication of the beach seine fishery and will further fall if the minimum mesh size for cast nets is implemented. A recommendation is made to the Kainji Lake Fisheries Management and Conservation Unit to first consolidate the beach seine ban and then to implement a ban of undersized cast nets. (PDF contains 70 pages)

Economic analysis of fish farming in Ogun State

This study examined the economic potential of fish farming in Abeokuta zone of Ogun State in the 2003 production season. Descriptive statistics cost returns and multiple regression analysis were used in analyzing the data. The farmers predominantly practiced monoculture. Inefficiency in the use of pond size, lime and labour with over-utilization of fingerlings stocked was revealed by the study. The average variable cost of N124.67 constituted 45% of the total while average fixed cost was N149.802.67 per average farm size. Fish farming was found to be a profitable venture in the study area with a net income of N761, 400.58 for an average pond size of 301.47sq.m. Based on these findings, it is suggested that for profit maximization, the fish farm will have to increase the level of their use of fingerlings and fertilizers and decrease the use of lime labour and pond size

Small-scale spatial and temporal variability in growth and mortality of fish larvae in the subtropical northcentral Gulf of Mexico: implications for assessing recruitment success

Extensive plankton collections were taken during seven September cruises (1990–93) along the inner continental shelf of the northcentral Gulf of Mexico (GOM). Despite the high productivity and availability of food during these cruises, significant small-scale spatial variability was found in larval growth rates for both Atlantic bumper (Chloroscombrus chrysurus, Carangidae) and vermilion snapper (Rhomboplites aurorubens, Lutjanidae). The observed variability in larval growth rates was not correlated with changes in water temperature or associated with conspicuous hydrographic features and suggested the existence of less-recognizable regions where conditions for growth vary. Cruise estimates of mortality coefficients (Z) for larval Atlantic bumper (n=32,241 larvae from six cruises) and vermilion snapper (n= 2581 larvae from four cruises) ranged from 0.20 to 0.37 and 0.19 to 0.29, respectively. Even in a subtropical climate like the GOM, where larval-stage durations may be as short as two weeks, observed variability in growth rates, particularly when combined with small changes in mortality rates, can cause order-of-magnitude differences in cumulative larval survival. To what extent the observed differences in growth rates at small spatial scales are fine-scale “noise” that ultimately is smoothed by larger-scale processes is not known. Future research is needed to further characterize the small-scale variability in growth rates of larvae, particularly with regard to microzooplankton patchiness and the temporal and spatial pattern of potential predators. Small-scale spatial variability in larval growth rates may in fact be the norm, and understanding the implications of this subtle mosaic may help us to better evaluate our ability to partition the causes of recruitment variability.

A Preliminary survey of 21 Ceylon lakes. 3. Parasites and predators, food of fish, and marginal fauna

Three nematodes, two acanthocephalans and three cestodes were collected by dissecting 15 species of fish. Of these parasites only Hedruris sp. a larval nematode is responsible directly for the death of fish, since it is found in predatory species a reduction of these might prove of considerable consequence to fish, production. Bothriocephalus gowleonensis, a cestode probably introduced from China with Chinese carp, was recorded in an indigenous carp Puntius sarana. This parasite causes heavy mortality in grass carp in China and is a potential danger to local species. A single crustacean parasite was recorded. It is likely that they are widespread. No protozoa were recorded but there can be little doubt that they occur in local freshwater species and may be of considerable importance in fisheries. Several predators (insects, fish and other vertebrates) were recorded and are doubtless of considerable importance. However, the role of parasites and of predators (especially fishes) in relation to the productivity of fisheries can hardly be assessed at present and needs further study. A study of the fauna found at the shallow edges of 21 irrigation reservoirs showed an abundance of fauna in the low-country reservoirs whilst the up-country reservoirs had a poor fauna. The fauna showed insects, crustacea and mollusca in this order of abundance. The presence of insect and molluscs feeding fish in our fauna shows that these rich sources of food are being utilised.

Studies on geo-morphology, ecology and fish production of the 92 rivers of Rajshahi Division, Bangladesh

Geo-morphology, ecology and fish production of the 92 rivers of Rajshahi division have been presented in this paper. Fifteen rivers are dead and 11 rivers have severe erosion problem. Siltation has increased in 66 rivers and depth has decreased in 11 rivers. Sixty nine rivers are suffering from low flow conditions. Fish diversity has decreased in 20 rivers while fish production has declined in 75 rivers. A total of 31 fish species have extinct, 25 species are under threat of extinction and 43 species have low production. Siltation and pollution are the major causes of fish habitat loss. Recommendations are made to protect and conserve fish habitat and riverine fisheries of Rajshahi division.

Status of fish broodstock management and seed production in Bangladesh

The study was conducted with the broad objectives to assess the existing situation of broodstock management and fish seed production in private fish seed farms in Bangladesh. The data were collected from 100 private hatcheries and 40 nurseries in seven upazilas under four districts. There was no shed in forty hatcheries and the owners faced many problems. Brood fish ponds were found suitable for rearing brood fish. About 66% of the hatchery owners collected brood fish from their own ponds and ponds of neighboring areas. Activities like pond preparation; manuring and supplementary feeding were done properly but stocking density of brood fish in 76% of the hatcheries was 3,000-7,000 kg/ha. Infection of argulosis was found in brood fish of 87% of the hatcheries. About 67% of the hatchery owners practiced inter-species crossing. Major problems faced by the hatchery owners were argulosis of brood fish, unavailability of pure brood stock, inadequate brood fish pond. The hatchery owners were found interested to find out the preventive measures of argulosis, develop pure brood stock of indigenous carp and import pure strain of exotic carp. According to the nursery operators, they cultivated hybrid fry because of high demand, rapid growth and good taste. Problems of using hatchery spawn as mentioned by the nursery operators were inbreeding, under sized and aged brood stock, stunted growth, physical deformities and high mortality of spawn due to unknown causes.

Present status of harvesting, transportation and marketing of freshwater Small Indigenous Species of Fish (SIS) of Bangladesh

A survey conducted to evaluate the present status of harvesting, transportation and marketing of freshwater SIS of Bangladesh showed that among the 56 to 73 species of small indigenous fish species (SIS), mola (Amblypharyngodon mola), dhela (Osteobrama cotio cotio), puti (Barbodes sarana), tit puti (Puntius ticto), tengra (Mystus vitatus), chapila ( Gudusia chapra), batashi (Pseudotropius atherinoides), buzuri tengra (Mystus tengra), katchki (Corika soborna), gol chanda (Chanda ranga), lamba chanda (Chanda nama), phul chela (Chela phulo) and lata (Channa punctatus) are the most common. But the abundance of the mola, puti, tengra, batashi and chapila are higher than the other SIS species. Puti was at the top of the list in percentage abundance (7-9%), followed by mola (7-8%), tengra 6-7% and chapila 5-6% in all the investigated areas. Three levels of market or marketing systems were observed in the distribution channel of fish trade: primary, secondary/higher secondary and final consuming markets. Primary market is the catching point in the rural area. In secondary market, the collectors bring the fish from primary market to the landing ghats, usually to the nearest thana market or at a place well linked by rivers, road and rail transport. On purchasing the fish from the higher secondary market, the paikars sell the fish to the retailers who take it to the final consumer market. Different types of crafts and gears are used for catching the SIS in Bangladesh. Monofilament gill nets (20%), traps and line nets (25%) and seine nets (25%) are the dominant gears in respect of the total catch followed by lift net (10%) and cast net (20%). A total of 10 types of gear are listed according to their mode of operation which used for catching SIS. The processors in consumer market received higher marketing profit followed by primary market and secondary market, respectively.

Identification of causes of Thai pangas mortality in ponds and their control strategies

Mass mortality of Thai pangas (Pangasius hypophthalmus) is reported to be a big threat to monoculture of the species in Bangladesh. Twenty affected and twenty control Thai pangas ponds were investigated around Mymensingh district in order to identify the causes of pangas mortality. Sixty affected and sixty unaffected fish samples were examined and compared to find the fish-level variables associated with the disease. A range of haemorrhagic signs on snout, skin and fins were recorded during examination with naked eyes. Aeromonas spp. and Edwardsiella spp. were isolated from 87% and 80% of the affected fish, respectively. Even 4% of the seemingly healthy fish carried Aeromonas spp. on their skin. Among the four water quality parameters monitored, remarkably higher total ammonia (1.5 ppm) was found in water of the affected ponds compared to that of the unaffected ones (0.4 ppm). High ammonia in affected water caused by excessive organic decomposition and poor pond management might have reduced the immunity of fish, which predisposed them for bacterial invasion and consequent disease outbreak.

Change in quality of different variety of fish during long distance transportation

A study was conducted to investigate the quality of iced fish of different species during long distance transportation. Total bacterial counts showed different species to show different quality deterioration under similar handling conditions.

Effects of fish and prawn culture on physico-chemical parameters of water and rice yield in rice fields

An experiment was conducted with five treatments i.e. rice combined with fish having regular urea fertilization (T1), rice combined with prawn having regular urea fertilization (T2), rice combined with fish with supplementary feeding (T3), rice combined with prawn with supplementary feeding (T4) and without fish and prawn (T5) was kept as control. The dissolved oxygen values obtained in treatments with fish both in morning and afternoon were lower than the values of prawn containing treatments and control. The values of nitrate-N, ammonia-N, phosphate-P and chlorophyll-a were higher in fish containing treatments than the prawn containing treatments and control. Between the two fish containing treatments the higher gross (539.44 kg/ha) and net (440.14 kg/ha) yield were obtained in T3 with supplementary feeding and the lower gross (424.88 kg/ha) and net (314.32 kg/ha) yield were recorded in T1 without supplementary feeding. Again, between two prawn containing treatments the higher gross (108.69 kg/ha) and net (81.92 kg/ha) yield were obtained in T4 with supplementary feeding and lower gross (64.32 kg/ha) and net (30.98 kg/ha) yield were recorded in T2 without supplementary feeding. The highest yield of rice grain (3.45 mt/ha) and straw (6.37 mt/ha) were obtained in T1 with fish having urea fertilization without feeding.