Agrupamentos de amostras circulares em função das unidades de solo

The objective of the study was to analyze the features of the relief through the variables: maximum altitude (HM); mean altitude (Hmd); minimum altitude (Hm); altitude range (H); average slope length (CVm); minimum length of run-off (Cd) and average steepness of circular samples (I) of the Capivara River Watershed – Botucatu (SP). A total of 4 circular samples were obtained per unit of soil (Quartzipsamment alfisol oxisol - RQ, Udox - LVA and Udorthent - RL). Multivariable analysis and aerial color photographs of 2000, Brazilian Chart and Soil Chart of Botucatu city-SP were used for data analyses. Soil differentiation was performed using the Student-t Test for analyzes of orthogonal contrasts among means of the three soils and analysis of groupings and major components. The grouping analysis of the variables of relief differentiated 75% of LVA and 100% of RL and RQ soil circular samples. The most efficient parameters of relief for differentiation of soils according to their order of importance were as follows: HM, Hm, Hmd and H.

Carbon monoxide and related trace gases and aerosols over the Amazon Basin during the wet and dry seasons

We present the results of airborne measurements of carbon monoxide (CO) and aerosol particle number concentration (CN) made during the Balan double dagger o Atmosf,rico Regional de Carbono na Amazonia (BARCA) program. The primary goal of BARCA is to address the question of basin-scale sources and sinks of CO2 and other atmospheric carbon species, a central issue of the Large-scale Biosphere-Atmosphere (LBA) program. The experiment consisted of two aircraft campaigns during November-December 2008 (BARCA-A) and May-June 2009 (BARCA-B), which covered the altitude range from the surface up to about 4500 m, and spanned most of the Amazon Basin. Based on meteorological analysis and measurements of the tracer, SF6, we found that airmasses over the Amazon Basin during the late dry season (BARCA-A, November 2008) originated predominantly from the Southern Hemisphere, while during the late wet season (BARCA-B, May 2009) low-level airmasses were dominated by northern-hemispheric inflow and mid-tropospheric airmasses were of mixed origin. In BARCA-A we found strong influence of biomass burning emissions on the composition of the atmosphere over much of the Amazon Basin, with CO enhancements up to 300 ppb and CN concentrations approaching 10 000 cm(-3); the highest values were in the southern part of the Basin at altitudes of 1-3 km. The Delta CN/Delta CO ratios were diagnostic for biomass burning emissions, and were lower in aged than in fresh smoke. Fresh emissions indicated CO/CO2 and CN/CO emission ratios in good agreement with previous work, but our results also highlight the need to consider the residual smoldering combustion that takes place after the active flaming phase of deforestation fires. During the late wet season, in contrast, there was little evidence for a significant presence of biomass smoke. Low CN concentrations (300-500 cm(-3)) prevailed basinwide, and CO mixing ratios were enhanced by only similar to 10 ppb above the mixing line between Northern and Southern Hemisphere air. There was no detectable trend in CO with distance from the coast, but there was a small enhancement of CO in the boundary layer suggesting diffuse biogenic sources from photochemical degradation of biogenic volatile organic compounds or direct biological emission. Simulations of CO distributions during BARCA-A using a range of models yielded general agreement in spatial distribution and confirm the important contribution from biomass burning emissions, but the models evidence some systematic quantitative differences compared to observed CO concentrations. These mismatches appear to be related to problems with the accuracy of the global background fields, the role of vertical transport and biomass smoke injection height, the choice of model resolution, and reliability and temporal resolution of the emissions data base.

Räumliche und jahreszeitliche Verteilung von OH- und HO 2-Radikalen in der Troposphäre über Europa

Durch geologische Prozesse freigesetzte sowie biogen und anthropogen emittierte Gase werden hauptsächlich von der untersten Atmosphärenschicht, der Troposphäre, aufgenommen und abgebaut. Durch in die Troposphä¬re einfallende solare Strahlung wird ein Abbau des Großteils der emittierten Spurengase durch reaktive Radikale initiiert. Der wichtigste Vertreter dieser reaktiven Radikale in der Troposphäre ist das Hydroxylradikal (OH-Radikal), welches im schnellen Gleichgewicht mit Hydroperoxyradikalen (HO2-Radikal) vorliegt, sodass die Summe aus OH- und HO2-Radikalen oft als HOx zusammengefasst wird. HOx-Radikale bilden tagsüber den Hauptteil der Oxidationskapazität der Troposphäre und sind somit verantwortlich für den oxidativen Abbau vieler, auch chemisch und photolytisch stabiler, Spurengase. Daher wird die Oxidationskapazität als Selbstreinigungskraft der Troposphäre verstanden. rnIm Rahmen meiner Arbeit wurde die wissenschaftliche Fragestellung auf die Oxidationskapazität der Troposphäre über Europa fokussiert. Die Höhen- und Breitenverteilung der OH- und HO2-Mischungsverhältnisse und ihre jahreszeitliche Variation wurde während der flugzeuggestützten HOOVER-Kampagnen (HOOVER 1 & 2) charakterisiert, wobei ein Fokus auf der oberen Troposphäre lag. Es wird gezeigt, welchen Einfluss die einfallende Strahlung, die Variation von HOx-Vorläufersubstanzen (wie z. B. Ozon) und die Variation von Substanzen, die das HOx-Gleichgewicht beeinflussen (z. B. Stickstoffmonoxid), auf das HOx-Budget haben. rnEs wird beispielhaft für den Höhenbereich zwischen 8 und 9.5 km gezeigt, dass die Oxidationskapazität in der oberen Troposphäre des Sommers im Ver¬gleich zu der des Herbstes aufgrund von einer verstärkten HO2-Zyklierung im Mittel deutlich erhöht ist (500 %). rnDurch konvektiven Transport werden im Sommer im Gegensatz zum Herbst regelmäßig Luftmassen aus der planetaren Grenzschicht in die obere Troposphäre eingemischt. Daher wurden der konvektive Luftmassentransport und der Einfluss der eingemischten Spurengase auf die Oxidationskapazität der oberen Troposphäre anhand eines konvektiven Elements über Südostdeutschland untersucht. Wie in dieser Arbeit berichtet wird, wurden in den Luftmassen der Ausströmregion mit bis zu 3.5 pmol/mol (Maximum 10 s-Mittelwert) sehr hohe OH-Mischungsverhältnisse gefunden, die aus der HO2-Konversion mit NO gebildet wurden. Das modellierte HOx-Budget zeigt, dass die HOx-Chemie - unter den beobachteten Bedingungen in der Ausströmregion - durch HOx-Zyklierungsreaktionen beherrscht wird. rnDie gemessenen OH-Mischungsverhältnisse in der Ausströmregion liegen etwa um einen Faktor fünf höher, als die während dieses Fluges in der konvektiv unbeeinflussten oberen Troposphäre gemessenen OH-Mischungsverhältnisse. Am Beispiel der NO2- und CH4-Lebensdauer wird ein schnellerer Abbau von Spurengasen aufgrund der erhöhten Oxidationskapazität nachgewiesen. Aus der NO2-Lebensdauer wird abgeschätzt, wie lange die Oxidationskapazität aufgrund des konvektiven Transports von NOx in den Luftmassen des Ausströmgebietes erhöht ist.rnDie während den Kampagnen durchgeführten Messungen wurden genutzt, um Modellberechnungen des vertikalen HOx-Budgets (über Südschweden) und des meridionalen HOx-Budgets zwischen Nordeuropa und Korsika durchzuführen. Es wurde gezeigt, dass das Modell die OH- und HO2-Mischungsverhältnisse im Allgemeinen gut reproduziert (Modell/Messung: OH im Sommer 94 %, HO2 im Sommer 93 % im Herbst 95 %), wohingegen die vergleichsweise kleinen OH-Mischungsverhältnisse im Herbst aufgrund von einer überschätzten H2O2 abhängigen OH-Produktion stark überschätzt wurden (Modell/Messung: 147 %). rnZur Charakterisierung der Oxidationskapazität innerhalb der planetaren Grenzschicht wurden die DOMINO-Kampagnen durchgeführt. Dabei wurde die Zusammensetzung unterschiedlicher Luftmassen untersucht, die aus verschiedenen Herkunftsorten zum Messort transportiert wurden und aufgrund ihres Ursprungs kaum prozessierte bis prozessierte anthropogen emittierte Spurengase enthielten. Zusätzlich enthielt ein Teil der Luftmassen biogen emittierte Spurengase. Komplementäre Messungen ermöglichen die Berechnung der totalen OH-Produktion und den Vergleich mit den bekannten OH-Quellen. Der Vergleich zeigt, dass offenbar wichtige OH-Produktionskanäle durch die gemessenen Spurengase oder die durchgeführten Berechnungen nicht abgebildet werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass die Stärke der unbekannten OH-Quellen, vor allem unter niedrigen NO-Bedingungen, groß ist und mit den Isopren-, RO2- und HO2-Mischungsverhältnissen korreliert.rn

First middle-atmospheric zonal wind profile measurements with a new ground-based microwave Doppler-spectro-radiometer

We report on the wind radiometer WIRA, a new ground-based microwave Doppler-spectro-radiometer specifically designed for the measurement of middle-atmospheric horizontal wind by observing ozone emission spectra at 142.17504 GHz. Currently, wind speeds in five levels between 30 and 79 km can be retrieved which makes WIRA the first instrument able to continuously measure horizontal wind in this altitude range. For an integration time of one day the measurement error on each level lies at around 25 m s−1. With a planned upgrade this value is expected to be reduced by a factor of 2 in the near future. On the altitude levels where our measurement can be compared to wind data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) very good agreement in the long-term statistics as well as in short time structures with a duration of a few days has been found. WIRA uses a passive double sideband heterodyne receiver together with a digital Fourier transform spectrometer for the data acquisition. A big advantage of the radiometric approach is that such instruments can also operate under adverse weather conditions and thus provide a continuous time series for the given location. The optics enables the instrument to scan a wide range of azimuth angles including the directions east, west, north, and south for zonal and meridional wind measurements. The design of the radiometer is fairly compact and its calibration does not rely on liquid nitrogen which makes it transportable and suitable for campaign use. WIRA is conceived in a way that it can be operated remotely and does hardly require any maintenance. In the present paper, a description of the instrument is given, and the techniques used for the wind retrieval based on the determination of the Doppler shift of the measured atmospheric ozone emission spectra are outlined. Their reliability was tested using Monte Carlo simulations. Finally, a time series of 11 months of zonal wind measurements over Bern (46°57′ N, 7°26′ E) is presented and compared to ECMWF wind data.

Strong Down-Valley Low-Level Jets over the Atacama Desert: Observational Characterization

The near-surface wind and temperature regime at three points in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile is described using two-year multi-level measurements from 80-m towers located in an altitude range between 2100 and 2700 m ASL. The data reveal the frequent development of strong nocturnal drainage flows at all sites. Down-valley nose-shaped wind speed profiles are observed with maximum values occurring at heights between 20 m and 60 m AGL. The flow intensity shows considerable inter-daily variability and a seasonal modulation of maximum speeds, which in the cold season can attain hourly average values larger than 20 m s−1. Turbulent mixing appears significant over the full tower layer, affecting the curvature of the nighttime temperature profile and possibly explaining the observed increase of surface temperatures in the down-valley direction. Nocturnal valley winds and temperatures are weakly controlled by upper-air conditions observed at the nearest aerological station. Estimates of terms in the momentum budget for the development and the quasi-stationary phases of the down-valley flows suggest that the pressure gradient force due to the near-surface cooling along the sloping valley axes plays an important role in these drainage flows. A scale for the jet nose height of equilibrium turbulent down-slope jets is proposed, based on surface friction velocity and surface inversion intensity. At one of the sites this scale explains about 70% of the case-to-case observed variance of jet nose heights. Further modeling and observational work is needed, however, in order to better define the dynamics, extent and turbulence structure of this flow system, which has significant wind-energy, climatic and environmental implications.

Validation of middle-atmospheric campaign-based water vapour measured by the ground-based microwave radiometer MIAWARA-C

Middle atmospheric water vapour can be used as a tracer for dynamical processes. It is mainly measured by satellite instruments and ground-based microwave radiometers. Ground-based instruments capable of measuring middle-atmospheric water vapour are sparse but valuable as they complement satellite measurements, are relatively easy to maintain and have a long lifetime. MIAWARA-C is a ground-based microwave radiometer for middle-atmospheric water vapour designed for use on measurement campaigns for both atmospheric case studies and instrument intercomparisons. MIAWARA-C's retrieval version 1.1 (v1.1) is set up in a such way as to provide a consistent data set even if the instrument is operated from different locations on a campaign basis. The sensitive altitude range for v1.1 extends from 4 hPa (37 km) to 0.017 hPa (75 km). For v1.1 the estimated systematic error is approximately 10% for all altitudes. At lower altitudes it is dominated by uncertainties in the calibration, with altitude the influence of spectroscopic and temperature uncertainties increases. The estimated random error increases with altitude from 5 to 25%. MIAWARA-C measures two polarisations of the incident radiation in separate receiver channels, and can therefore provide two measurements of the same air mass with independent instrumental noise. The standard deviation of the difference between the profiles obtained from the two polarisations is in excellent agreement with the estimated random measurement error of v1.1. In this paper, the quality of v1.1 data is assessed for measurements obtained at two different locations: (1) a total of 25 months of measurements in the Arctic (Sodankylä, 67.37° N, 26.63° E) and (2) nine months of measurements at mid-latitudes (Zimmerwald, 46.88° N, 7.46° E). For both locations MIAWARA-C's profiles are compared to measurements from the satellite experiments Aura MLS and MIPAS. In addition, comparisons to ACE-FTS and SOFIE are presented for the Arctic and to the ground-based radiometer MIAWARA for the mid-latitude campaigns. In general, all intercomparisons show high correlation coefficients, confirming the ability of MIAWARA-C to monitor temporal variations of the order of days. The biases are generally below 13% and within the estimated systematic uncertainty of MIAWARA-C. No consistent wet or dry bias is identified for MIAWARA-C. In addition, comparisons to the reference instruments indicate the estimated random error of v1.1 to be a realistic measure of the random variation on the retrieved profile between 45 and 70 km.

First continuous ground-based observations of long period oscillations in strato-/mesospheric wind profiles

Direct measurements of middle-atmospheric wind oscillations with periods between 5 and 50 days in the altitude range between mid-stratosphere (5 hPa) and upper mesosphere (0.02 hPa) have been made using a novel ground-based Doppler wind radiometer. The oscillations were not inferred from measurements of tracers, as the radiometer offers the unique capability of near-continuous horizontal wind profile measurements. Observations from four campaigns at high, mid and low latitudes with an average duration of 10 months have been analyzed. The dominant oscillation has mostly been found to lie in the extra-long period range (20–40 days), while the well-known atmospheric normal modes around 5, 10 and 16 days have also been observed. Comparisons of our results with ECMWF operational analysis model data revealed remarkably good agreement below 0.3 hPa but discrepancies above.

Map of Gurgler Ferner 1981

The map of Gurgler Ferner (1 : 10.000) was used for determining changes of volume and mass compared to earlier surveys, as a basis for a geophysical determination of ice thickness, and as a glaciological document. The cartographic evaluation emphasized the terrain surrounding the snow and ice covered areas. Gurgler Ferner covers an area of 10.7 km**2 , 60 % of which are situated between 2800 and 3100 m, the altitude range of the equilibrium line. From 1969 to 1981 the glacier and its tributaries lost 25 *10**6 m**3 of water, equivalent to a mean lowering of the surface by 17 cm per year in good agreement with the value of Hintereisferner.

Surface mass balance along the K-transect in West Greenland

A 21-year record is presented of surface mass balance measurements along the K-transect. The series covers the period 1990-2011. Data are available at 8 sites along a transect over an altitude range of 390 - 1850 m at approximately 67° N in West Greenland. The surface mass balance gradient is on average 3.8 x 10**-3 m w.e./m, and the mean equilibrium line altitude is 1553 m a.s.l. Only the lower 3 sites within 10 km of the margin experience a significant increasing trend in the ablation over the entire period.

Robust scale initialization for long-range stereo visual odometry

Achieving a robust, accurately scaled pose estimate in long-range stereo presents significant challenges. For large scene depths, triangulation from a single stereo pair is inadequate and noisy. Additionally, vibration and flexible rigs in airborne applications mean accurate calibrations are often compromised. This paper presents a technique for accurately initializing a long-range stereo VO algorithm at large scene depth, with accurate scale, without explicitly computing structure from rigidly fixed camera pairs. By performing a monocular pose estimate over a window of frames from a single camera, followed by adding the secondary camera frames in a modified bundle adjustment, an accurate, metrically scaled pose estimate can be found. To achieve this the scale of the stereo pair is included in the optimization as an additional parameter. Results are presented both on simulated and field gathered data from a fixed-wing UAV flying at significant altitude, where the epipolar geometry is inaccurate due to structural deformation and triangulation from a single pair is insufficient. Comparisons are made with more conventional VO techniques where the scale is not explicitly optimized, and demonstrated over repeated trials to indicate robustness.

Variation in offspring size towards the high elevational range edge of a montane annual

Understanding the ecological determinants of species’ distribution is a fundamental goal of ecology, and is increasingly important with changing limits to species’ range. Species often reach distributional limits on gradients of resource availability, but the extent to which offspring provisioning varies towards range limits is poorly understood. Selection is generally expected to favour higher provisioning of individual offspring in environments with short growing seasons and limited moisture, nutrients, or hosts for parasitism. However, individual provisioning may decline if parent size is limited by resources. This thesis focuses on three major questions: 1) does seed size vary over an elevational gradient? 2) does this variation respond adaptively towards the range limit? and 3) is potential elevational variation environmentally or genetically controlled? I tested variation in seed investment towards the upper elevational limit of the hemiparasitic annual herb Rhinanthus minor, sampled across an elevational range of 1,000m in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada. I also used a reciprocal transplant experiment to address the heritability of seed mass. Seed mass increased marginally towards higher elevations, while seed number and plant size declined. There was a strong elevational increase in seed mass scaled by overall plant size. Therefore, investment in individual seeds was higher towards the upper range edge, indicating potential adaptation of the reproductive strategy to allow for establishment in marginal environments. Genetic, environmental, and genotype-by-environment interactions were observed in transplanted populations, but the relative proportions of these effects on seed size were unclear.

The biometeorology of high-altitude insect layers.

Flight at high altitude is part of a migration strategy that maximises insect population displacement. This thesis represents the first substantial analysis of insect migration and layering in Europe. Vertical-looking entomological radar has revealed specific characteristics of high-altitude flight: in particular layering (where a large proportion of the migrating insects are concentrated in a narrow altitude band). The meteorological mechanisms underpinning the formation of these layers are the focus of this thesis. Aerial netting samples and radar data revealed four distinct periods of high-altitude insect migration: dawn, daytime, dusk, and night-time. The most frequently observed nocturnal profiles during the summertime were layers. It is hypothesised that nocturnal layers initiate at a critical altitude (200–500 m above ground level) and time (20:00–22:00 hours UTC). Case study analysis, statistical analysis, and a Lagrangian trajectory model showed that nocturnal insect layers probably result from the insects’ response to meteorological conditions. Temperature was the variable most correlated with nocturnal insect layer presence and intensity because insects are poikilothermic, and temperatures experienced during high-altitude migration in temperate climates are expected to be marginal for many insects’ flight. Hierarchical effects were detected such that other variables—specifically wind speed—were only correlated with insect layer presence and intensity once temperatures were warm. The trajectory model developed comprised: (i) insect flight characteristics; (ii) turbulent winds (which cause vertical spread of the layer); and (iii) mean wind speed, which normally leads to horizontal displacements of hundreds of kilometres in a single migratory flight. This thesis has revealed that there is considerable migratory activity over the UK in the summer months, and a range of fascinating phenomena can be observed (including layers). The UK has moved from one of the least studied to perhaps the best studied environments of aerial insect migration and layering in the world.

Peroxy radicals and ozone photochemistry in air masses undergoing long-range transport

Concentrations of peroxy radicals (HO2+ΣiRiO2) in addition to other trace gases were measured onboard the UK Meteorological Office/Natural Environment Research Council British Aerospace 146-300 atmospheric research aircraft during the Intercontinental Transport of Ozone and Precursors (ITOP) campaign based at Horta Airport, Faial, Azores (38.58° N, 28.72° W) in July/August 2004. The overall peroxy radical altitude profile displays an increase with altitude that is likely to have been impacted by the effects of long-range transport. The peroxy radical altitude profile for air classified as of marine origin shows no discernable altitude profile. A range of air-masses were intercepted with varying source signatures, including those with aged American and Asian signatures, air-masses of biomass burning origin, and those that originated from the east coast of the United States. Enhanced peroxy radical concentrations have been observed within this range of air-masses indicating that long-range transported air-masses traversing the Atlantic show significant photochemical activity. The net ozone production at clear sky limit is in general negative, and as such the summer mid-Atlantic troposphere is at limit net ozone destructive. However, there is clear evidence of positive ozone production even at clear sky limit within air masses undergoing long-range transport, and during ITOP especially between 5 and 5.5 km, which in the main corresponds to a flight that extensively sampled air with a biomass burning signature. Ozone production was NOx limited throughout ITOP, as evidenced by a good correlation (r2=0.72) between P(O3) and NO. Strong positive net ozone production has also been seen in varying source signature air-masses undergoing long-range transport, including but not limited to low-level export events, and export from the east coast of the United States.

Altitude acts as an environmental filter on phylogenetic composition, traits and diversity in bee communities.

Knowledge about the phylogeny and ecology of communities along environmental gradients helps to disentangle the role of competition-driven processes and environmental filtering for community assembly. In this study, we evaluated patterns in species richness, phylogenetic structure and life-history traits of bee communities along altitudinal gradients in the Alps, Germany. We found a linear decline in species richness and abundance but increasing phylogenetic clustering in communities with increasing altitude. The proportion of social- and ground-nesting species, as well as mean body size and altitudinal range of bee communities, increased with increasing altitude, whereas the mean geographical distribution decreased. Our results suggest that community assembly at high altitudes is dominated by environmental filtering effects, whereas the relative importance of competition increases at low altitudes. We conclude that inherent phylogenetic and ecological species attributes at high altitudes pose a threat for less competitive alpine specialists with ongoing climate change.