Dopuszczalność i skutki potwierdzenia czynności dokonanej bez wymaganej przez umowę lub statut zgody organu spółki

W artykule autorzy podejmują się dokonania analizy zagadnienia dotyczącego możliwości naruszenia umowy spółki lub statutu przez członków zarządu oraz wpływu takiego naruszenia na ważność podjętej czynności prawnej. Zagadnienie to wywołuje liczne problemy praktyczne, chociażby z uwagi na obowiązek każdorazowej weryfikacji przed zawarciem umowy listy czynności, na dokonanie których statut lub umowa spółki zastrzega sobie taki wymóg. Nie ma tu znaczenia dobra czy zła wiara kontrahenta, który ma świadomość o istnieniu takiego zapisu dla ważności danej czynności prawnej. Zgoła odmienna jest sytuacja członka zarządu, dla którego uzyskanie takiej zgody jest ważne, z uwagi na naruszenia umowy spółki albo statutu, a w konsekwencji jego odpowiedzialność odszkodowawczą do dochodzenia ewentualnego odszkodowania za szkodę wyrządzoną działaniem lub zaniechaniem. Pamiętać jednak należy, że do istnienia odpowiedzialności niezbędne jest wykazanie szkody. Jednakże biorąc pod uwagę uwarunkowania biznesowe niekiedy trudno uzyskać zgodę rady nadzorczej lub walnego zgromadzenia wspólników na taką zgodę. Powstaje wtedy pytanie, czy można ją uzyskać następczo. Autorzy w artykule dokonują analizy stawiając tezę, iż możliwe jest następcze wyrażenie zgody na dokonaną bez uprzedniej zgody czynność prawną. Dokonując wnioskowania a maiori ad minus można w ocenie autorów dopuścić potwierdzenie takiej czynności następczo i to nie tylko w wymaganym dwumiesięcznym terminie, ale nawet późniejszym, co może mieć wpływ na ich ewentualne wyłączenie odpowiedzialności z tytułu naruszenia postanowień umowy spółki (statutu). Całość rozważań ściśle oscyluje wokół praktycznych problemów pojawiających się funkcjonowaniu spółki.

Ochrona prawna zdolności do życia zarodka w ustawie o leczeniu niepłodności z uwzględnieniem dorobku konstytucyjnego

Od wielu lat niepłodność pozostaje przedmiotem dyskusji medycznych, jak i prawnych. Choroba ta jest problemem o szerokim zasięgu społecznym, dotyka bowiem coraz większej liczby osób starających się o potomstwo. Uznanie niepłodności za chorobę a procedurę zapłodnienia pozaustrojowego za jedną z metod jej leczenia ma swoje doniosłe konsekwencje prawne. Z jednej strony mamy do czynienia z konstytucyjną ochroną prawa do ochrony zdrowia niepłodnej pary, ale z drugiej strony jawi się kolejna konstytucyjna wartość wymagająca ochrony – życie mającego się urodzić dziecka. Ustawodawca dostrzegł potrzebę uregulowania metod leczenia niepłodności, czego konsekwencją jest ustawa z dnia 25 czerwca 2015 r. o leczeniu niepłodności. Tematem artykułu jest ocena, na ile i czy w ogóle ustawodawca w przedmiotowej ustawie zapewnia ochronę prawną zdolności do życia zarodka.

Wstępne uwagi o powszechnym głosowaniu korespondencyjnym w wyborach prezydenckich w 2015 r. (wybrane zagadnienia)

Instytucja mężów zaufania, często określana mianem „niemych obserwatorów wyborów”, traktowana jest z dużym dystansem i budzi wśród przedstawicieli doktryny prawa konstytucyjnego, jak również świata polityki, wiele wątpliwości. Zadaniem mężów zaufania jest reprezentowanie podczas wyborów interesu kandydata, bądź listy kandydatów, przed komisją wyborczą i czuwanie nad prawidłowym przebiegiem czynności wyborczych, w tym przede wszystkim zliczaniem głosów i ustalaniem wyników wyborów. Ma zatem istotne znaczenie dla zapewnienia rzetelności i uczciwości procedur wyborczych, jak również poszanowania podstawowych zasad prawa wyborczego, w szczególności zasady powszechności i wolności wyborów oraz tajności głosowania. Niestety w Kodeksie wyborczym uregulowana jest stosunkowo fragmentarycznie, zaś jej dookreślenie znajduje się w wytycznych Państwowej Komisji Wyborczej. Przed wyborami pojawiają się również różne (opracowywane najczęściej przez partie polityczne) instrukcje, określane także mianem vademecum, czy poradniki dla mężów zaufania, których treść może budzić wątpliwości. Wywołuje to potrzebę debaty przedstawicieli doktryny i polityków nad funkcjami i konstrukcją prawną instytucji mężów zaufania w polskim prawie wyborczym, jak i stosownymi jego zmianami.

Influence of stocking densities in the nursery phase on the growth of Macrobrachium amazonicum reared in net pens

The Amazon river prawn (Macrobrachium amazonicum) is a native species with great potential for aquaculture, based on promising results obtained from experimental culture trials in Brazil. The influence of different stocking densities on the development of prawns reared in cages in the nursery phase as well as on their growth when transferred to grow-out net pens at lower densities was evaluated. In the nursery phase, juveniles I (0.157 +/- 0.014 g, 47 days old) were stocked in 0.5 m(-2) cages at densities of 400, 800 and 1200 m(-2). After 71 days, prawns were transferred to grow-out net pens of 2.0 m(-2), at a density of 20 juveniles II m(-2). The treatments were determined by the mean weights registered for the prawns (118 days old) previously stocked at 400, 800 and 1200 juveniles I m(-2) in the nursery phase: 0.94 +/- 0.07 g (T1), 0.61 +/- 0.04 g (T2) and 0.48 +/- 0.07 g (T3), respectively. In the nursery phase, mean survival was above 96%, whereas mean weights were significantly higher (P<0.05) for the density of 400 prawns m(-2). The highest biomass (276.7 g) and productivity (1152 juveniles II m(-2)) were registered at the density of 1200 prawns m(-2), differing significantly (P<0.05) from the lower densities. One month after the transfer of the animals to the net pens, there was recovery in the specific growth rate (SGR) of prawns in all treatments which was significantly higher (P<0.05) in T3 (4.01 +/- 0.36% day(-1)) and T2 (3.60 +/- 0.18% day(-1)). The feed conversion efficiency (FCE) in the first month after the transfer was also significantly higher (P<0.05) in T3 (78.2 +/- 19.1%) when compared to T1 (39.8 +/- 9.5%). These results suggest the occurrence of a compensatory growth in M. amazonicum after transferring them to lower densities, which can point out high densities for nursery cages as a viable practice. After 277 days of grow-out phase in net pens in the cold season, survival, mean weight and biomass did not differ significantly among the treatments, indicating the viability of using net pens in stocking prawns during autumn and winter, since the minimum temperature does not drop below 17 degrees C. Influence of stocking density during the nursery phase on the grow-out of prawns was not observed. The population structure in prawns reared in net-pens was similar to that observed in earthen ponds. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Efeito da intensidade luminosa no desenvolvimento larval do camarão-da-amazônia, Macrobrachium amazonicum

The effects of four light intensities (0; 2.8 +/- 0.9; 5,5 +/- 1,8 e 7,8 +/- 2,5 mu mol s(-1) m(-2), about 136.5 +/- 87.5; 273 +/- 43.8 e 390 +/- 125 lux, respectively) on survival, productivity, weight gain and larval development of Macrobrachium amazonicum were investigated. Four treatments with three replicate tanks were evaluated. Newly hatched larvae were held in black tanks (80.2 +/- 0.6 larvae L(-1)) filled with 50-L-brackish water (salinity of 10), in a recirculating system. Tanks were covered with shadow cloth allowing 35% and 70% light, respectively, to reach light intensities of 2.8 +/- 0.9 and 5.5 +/- 1.8 mu mol s(-1) m(-2) at the water surface. Complete absence of light (0 mu mol s(-1) m(-2)) was obtained covering the tanks with opaque black plastic, and full-light condition used no covering (7.8 +/- 2.5 mu mol s(-1) m(-2)). Observations showed that the survival rate was not affected by light intensity. Productivity and weight gain were higher under 7.8 +/- 2.5 mu mol s(-1) m(-2) light intensity than under 0 and 2.8 +/- 0.9 1 mu mol s(-1) m(-2) intensities (P<0.05). The larval development index was similar among the treatments under the different light intensities. However, from stage VII this index was increased slightly in the treatment under 7.8 +/- 2.5 mu mol s(-1) m(-2) light intensity. In conclusion, light intensity affects larval development of M. amazonicum. Values as high as 7.8 mu mol s(-1) m(-2) (about 390 lux) improve the larval performance by enhancing development, productivity and weight gain compared to lower values.

External ophthalmomyiasis by Oestrus ovis treated with tobacco: clinical case report and medical literature review

External ophthalmomyiasis is an infestation of conjunctiva with larvae or maggots of certain lies. Oestrus ovis is the most common cause of human ophthalmomyiasis. The case of a 16-yearold female is described, who presented with foreign body sensation, pain, and redness in the left eye. Slit-lamp biomicroscopy revealed 32 tiny larvae crawling around the conjunctival sac. The larvae were mechanically removed under topical anesthesia, and identiied under a light microscope as irst-stage larvae of O. ovis causing external ophthalmomyiasis. She was successfully treated with topical tobacco juice. Follow-up examination of these cases is recommended to avoid possible complications.

¿FRACASÓ LA POLÍTICA DE LAS “METAS DE INFLACIÓN” Y LAS BANDAS CAMBIARIAS?

Resumen El viernes 13 de octubre del 2006, el Banco Central de Costa Rica (BCCR) emitió un comunicado de prensa anunciando que modificaría, a partir del 17 de ese mes, el esquema cambiario de minidevaluaciones por otro denominado bandas cambiaras. En el nuevo esquema, el tipo de cambio podría ser fijado por el “mercado” siempre que fluctuara dentro de bandas predeterminadas. Este artículo analiza la evolución del tipo de cambio desde que se estableció el nuevo esquema, profundizando desde setiembre de 2009, cuando el BCCR dejó de intervenir el mercado cambiario y con ello aumentó la inestabilidad y volatilidad del tipo de cambio. Se pone en duda si el BCCR debe preocuparse solo por lograr una baja inflación y olvidarse del crecimiento económico, al igual que si el mercado cambiario opera en un mercado de competencia. Abstract On Friday October 13, 2006, the Banco Central de Costa Rica (BCCR) released a press communication announcing that the exchange regime would change, from the crawling-peg exchange regime to other called exchange rate band, effective on the 17th of that month. In the new scheme, the exchange rate may be established by the "market", when the fluctuation happened within predetermined bands. This article analyzes the evolution of the exchange rate from the establishment of the new scheme, deepening on the month of September 2009 when the BCCR stopped intervening the foreign exchange rate and therefore increased the instability and volatility of the exchange rate. It questions not only if the BCCR needs to worry only on achieving low inflation and forget about the economic growth, but also if the foreign exchange market operates in a competitive market.

Ingestion rates of Artemia nauplii for different larval stages of Macrobrachium rosenbergii

The functional response between ingestion rate and food concentration was determined for each larval stage of Macrobrachium rosenbergii. Artemia franciscana nauplii were supplied at 2,4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 per milliliter. The nauplii were counted by sight using a Pasteur pipette and transferred to Petri dishes containing 40 ml of brackish water (12 parts per thousand) lying on the top of black plastic. One larva at each stage was individually placed into each Petri dish containing different food density. After 24 h, each larva was removed from the Petri dish and the leftover nauplii were counted. The amount consumed was determined by the difference between the initial and final number of nauplii. Ingestion rate (I) increased as food density (P) increased and was defined by the model I=I-m(1-e(-kP)). The results suggest four levels of ingestion during larval development. The first level includes stages II, III and IV, with average maximum consumption of about 40 nauplii/day; the second level includes stages V and VI, with consumption of approximately 55 nauplii/day; the third level includes stages VII and VIII, with consumption of 80-100 nauplii/day. The fourth level includes stages IX, X and XI, in which the high values for maximum ingestion (Im) exceed the load capacity of the medium. The low values for constant k (that may correspond to the adaptability of the food to prey characteristics, such as, size, mobility, etc.) obtained for stages IX, X and XI indicated that Artemia is not an adequate prey and there is necessity of a supplementary diet. The best relationship between predator and prey seemed to occur during stage IV Results obtained in the present work may subsidize future researches and serve as a guideline for practical considerations of feeding rates. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. B.V. All rights reserved.

Comportamento alimentar do camarão de agua doce, Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) (Crustacea, Palaemonidae) durante a fase larval: análise qualitativa

Feeding behavior of the larvae's prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man, 1879, in each stage of development was studied face alArtemia Linnaeus, 1758 nauplii, dry and wet diets. Groups of ten larvae in each stage were placed in 500 ml beakers at 29ºC in filtered brackish water. After the fasting period of acclimatization, the three types of food were offered separately to the larvae and the feeding behavior was observed during 30 min. Feeding perception, capture, grasp and ingestion of food were used to determine feeding pattern. Stage I lawac do not eat. The feeding behavior of larvae was similar on the stages II - XI. The perception in distance does not occur in most individuais; the feeding process generally started with the physrcal contact of food with the animal. Food is captured by thoracic appendages (maxillipeds until stage III, and maxillipeds + pereopods in stages IV - XI) and particles are grasped and handled by maxillipeds. Inopposition at the capture, the ingestion is a seletive process. Selective responses decrease in later stages and larvae become omnivorous in greater degree.

Uso de bandejas de alimentação na fase de engorda do camarão-da-Amazônia Macrobrachium amazonicum (HELLER, 1862)

The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the hypothesis that the M. amazonicum prawns accept feeding in trays. Six ponds were stocked with 10 juveniles II (1.2 +/- 0.7 g) per m(2) in 02/14/2003. An entirely randomized experimental design with 2 treatments (feeding in trays or feeding to the throw) and 3 replicates was used. Prawn average weight, survival, productivity, and physical and chemical variables of the water were compared between treatments using "t" test of Student. Average weight, survival and productivity were, respectively, 7.2 +/- 0.3 g, 46.8 +/- 7.8% and 335 +/- 45 kg/ha in feeding tray treatment and 6.8 +/- 0.1 g, 85.8 +/- 5.2% and 586 +/- 42 kg/ha in feed to the throw treatment. Survival and productivity differed significantly (p<0.5), while that average weight didn't differ significantly. M. amazonicum needs to use further number of trays per area, possibly due to territorial and aggressive behavior.

Sistema de recirculação e rotina de manejo para larvicultura de camarões de água doce Macrobrachium rosenbergii em pequena escala

A recirculating system and a matching management schedule for small-scale freshwater prawn larviculture were described. The system comprised a 140 L larval culture tank in line with a 43 L biofilter filled with 24 L of calcareous substrate. Both the tank and biofilter were made of black colored fiberglass in a conical-cylindrical shape. The turnover rate of the water through the system was 24 times a day; water was pumped by airlift. Results of ten larvicultures showed that the system maintained temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity, ammonium and nitrite stable and suitable to Macrobrachium rosenbergii larvae. Survival and productivity varied from 60.5 to 72.4% and 37 to 72 post-larvae/L, respectively; both were compatible with results of commercial hatcheries. Therefore, this system may be very useful for research purposes or adapted for small-scale post-larvae production.

Impact of maintenance of Macrobrachium rosenbergii de Man, 1879 (Crustacea, Decapoda, Palaemonidae) broodstock on the water used in culture ponds

A produção aquícola gera benefícios sociais e econômicos, no entanto, também pode proporcionar impactos ambientais. Os objetivos deste trabalho foram: a) caracterizar os impactos causados pela manutenção de reprodutores do camarão-da-malásia (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) nas características físicas e químicas da água utilizada nos viveiros de cultivo; e b) avaliar a relação entre a biomassa de camarões e o impacto do cultivo na água utilizada no viveiro. Entre janeiro e dezembro de 2004, foram determinadas, mensalmente, a biomassa de M. rosenbergii, por meio de biometria, e as variáveis físicas e químicas da água de abastecimento e do efluente de um viveiro utilizado para a manutenção de reprodutores. Os resultados mostraram que o efluente possui maiores valores de clorofila a, material particulado em suspensão (MPS), pH, oxigênio dissolvido, nitrogênio Kjeldahl total (NKT) e nitrogênio Kjeldahl dissolvido (NKD), nitrogênio inorgânico (NI), fósforo (PT) e fósforo dissolvido (PD) e P-ortofosfato do que a água de abastecimento do viveiro. A maior biomassa de M. rosenbergii ocorreu em abril (127,0 g.m-2) e a menor em agosto (71,5 g.m-2) e houve correlações lineares positivas entre a biomassa de camarões e a intensidade do aumento de NKT, NKD, NI, PT e PD da água utilizada no viveiro. A manutenção de reprodutores de M. rosenbergii aumentou a clorofila-a, MPS, nitrogênio e fósforo da água utilizada no viveiro. Além disso, o aumento da biomassa de camarões intensifica a exportação de nitrogênio e fósforo do viveiro pelo efluente.

Ablação ocular no camarão Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man) (Crustacea, Decapoda, Palaemonidae): efeitos sobre a reprodução, pigmentação epidérmica e atividade alimentar

This study analyze the consequences of unilateral and bilateral ablation based on ovigerous percentage, consecutive spawns, and secondary effects of the surgical process in the females of Macrobrachium rosenbergii (De Man, 1879). Two experiments were carried out with four and seven months old females in intermolt stage. Each experiment was comprised of control, unilateral and bilateral ablation. Eyestalk ablation was done with a bistoury with a topic hot cauterization followed by application of antibiotic pomades. The animals were maintained at constant temperature (28 ± 1,05ºC) and photoperiod of 12L: 12D within fibercement boxes with sandy bottom and biological filter. Females were observed once a day during fourteen weeks, registering gonadal condition, ecdysis and presence of spermatophore (mating) and spawning. Unilateral ablation technique is more efficient due to the anticipation of the first spawn, repeatability between spawns, expressive rate of ovigerous females and survival, that favored its applicability. Bilateral eyestalk ablation produced the mortality of ali the females with change in coloration and food activity patterns. These results corroborate other observations on penaeid shrimps. though bilateral ablation on some lobsters was a success. These results showing an interespecific variation and can be used in aquaculture projects.

Densidade de estocagem para produção de Acará-bandeira em viveiros escavados em policultivo com Camarão-da-amazônia

The aim of this study was to evaluate the production of Freshwater Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) in different stocking densities in cages polycultured with Amazon River Prawn (Macrobrachium amazonicum). Four treatments were evaluated (1; 2; 3 and 4 fish. 10 L(-1)) using two ponds and 24 experimental units. Water quality parameter reached adequate levels for the species. Production data were submitted to ANOVA. Fish produced in the lowest density showed higher values of final weight and standard length, and lower total biomass in comparison with the others treatments. Feed conversion rate, survival, batch uniformity and body factor were not significant different among treatments. The highest density tested produced more fish and gross yield than the others treatments. The density 20 fish. 10L(-1) is recommended to produce Freshwater Angelfish in cages polycultured with Amazon River Prawn.

Query routing in cooperative semi-structured peer-to-peer information retrieval networks

Conventional web search engines are centralised in that a single entity crawls and indexes the documents selected for future retrieval, and the relevance models used to determine which documents are relevant to a given user query. As a result, these search engines suffer from several technical drawbacks such as handling scale, timeliness and reliability, in addition to ethical concerns such as commercial manipulation and information censorship. Alleviating the need to rely entirely on a single entity, Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Information Retrieval (IR) has been proposed as a solution, as it distributes the functional components of a web search engine – from crawling and indexing documents, to query processing – across the network of users (or, peers) who use the search engine. This strategy for constructing an IR system poses several efficiency and effectiveness challenges which have been identified in past work. Accordingly, this thesis makes several contributions towards advancing the state of the art in P2P-IR effectiveness by improving the query processing and relevance scoring aspects of a P2P web search. Federated search systems are a form of distributed information retrieval model that route the user’s information need, formulated as a query, to distributed resources and merge the retrieved result lists into a final list. P2P-IR networks are one form of federated search in routing queries and merging result among participating peers. The query is propagated through disseminated nodes to hit the peers that are most likely to contain relevant documents, then the retrieved result lists are merged at different points along the path from the relevant peers to the query initializer (or namely, customer). However, query routing in P2P-IR networks is considered as one of the major challenges and critical part in P2P-IR networks; as the relevant peers might be lost in low-quality peer selection while executing the query routing, and inevitably lead to less effective retrieval results. This motivates this thesis to study and propose query routing techniques to improve retrieval quality in such networks. Cluster-based semi-structured P2P-IR networks exploit the cluster hypothesis to organise the peers into similar semantic clusters where each such semantic cluster is managed by super-peers. In this thesis, I construct three semi-structured P2P-IR models and examine their retrieval effectiveness. I also leverage the cluster centroids at the super-peer level as content representations gathered from cooperative peers to propose a query routing approach called Inverted PeerCluster Index (IPI) that simulates the conventional inverted index of the centralised corpus to organise the statistics of peers’ terms. The results show a competitive retrieval quality in comparison to baseline approaches. Furthermore, I study the applicability of using the conventional Information Retrieval models as peer selection approaches where each peer can be considered as a big document of documents. The experimental evaluation shows comparative and significant results and explains that document retrieval methods are very effective for peer selection that brings back the analogy between documents and peers. Additionally, Learning to Rank (LtR) algorithms are exploited to build a learned classifier for peer ranking at the super-peer level. The experiments show significant results with state-of-the-art resource selection methods and competitive results to corresponding classification-based approaches. Finally, I propose reputation-based query routing approaches that exploit the idea of providing feedback on a specific item in the social community networks and manage it for future decision-making. The system monitors users’ behaviours when they click or download documents from the final ranked list as implicit feedback and mines the given information to build a reputation-based data structure. The data structure is used to score peers and then rank them for query routing. I conduct a set of experiments to cover various scenarios including noisy feedback information (i.e, providing positive feedback on non-relevant documents) to examine the robustness of reputation-based approaches. The empirical evaluation shows significant results in almost all measurement metrics with approximate improvement more than 56% compared to baseline approaches. Thus, based on the results, if one were to choose one technique, reputation-based approaches are clearly the natural choices which also can be deployed on any P2P network.