Glia-Pinealocyte Network: The Paracrine Modulation of Melatonin Synthesis by Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)

The pineal gland, a circumventricular organ, plays an integrative role in defense responses. The injury-induced suppression of the pineal gland hormone, melatonin, which is triggered by darkness, allows the mounting of innate immune responses. We have previously shown that cultured pineal glands, which express toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and tumor necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1), produce TNF when challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Here our aim was to evaluate which cells present in the pineal gland, astrocytes, microglia or pinealocytes produced TNF, in order to understand the interaction between pineal activity, melatonin production and immune function. Cultured pineal glands or pinealocytes were stimulated with LPS. TNF content was measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TLR4 and TNFR1 expression were analyzed by confocal microscopy. Microglial morphology was analyzed by immunohistochemistry. In the present study, we show that although the main cell types of the pineal gland (pinealocytes, astrocytes and microglia) express TLR4, the production of TNF induced by LPS is mediated by microglia. This effect is due to activation of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) pathway. In addition, we observed that LPS activates microglia and modulates the expression of TNFR1 in pinealocytes. As TNF has been shown to amplify and prolong inflammatory responses, its production by pineal microglia suggests a glia-pinealocyte network that regulates melatonin output. The current study demonstrates the molecular and cellular basis for understanding how melatonin synthesis is regulated during an innate immune response, thus our results reinforce the role of the pineal gland as sensor of immune status.

One-Pot, Three-Step Reaction of 5-[(Trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]pyrrolidin-2-one with Azides Catalyzed by Cu-I: Synthesis of a Novel Class of 1,4-Disubstituted 1,2,3-Triazoles

A very fast, easy and efficient synthesis is described for a novel and biologically important class of 1,4-disubstituted-4-(5-pyrrolidin-2-one)-1,2,3-triazoles by an ultrasound-assisted one-pot, three-step click reaction sequence of 5-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]pyrrolidin-2-one with organic azides mediated by catalytic Cu-I salts.

Total Synthesis of (+)-trans-Trikentrin A

Several syntheses have already been reported for cis-trikentrins and herbindoles, which are indole alkaloids unsubstituted at the C2 and C3 positions that bear a trans-1,3-dimethylcyclopentyl unit. Herein, we describe the first asymmetric and stereoselective synthesis of the more challenging trans-trikentrin A as its naturally occurring isomer. Different approaches were investigated and the strategy of choice was a combination of an enzymatic kinetic resolution and a thallium(III)-mediated ring contraction. The antiproliferative activities of the natural product and related intermediates have been tested against human tumor cell lines, leading to the discovery of new compounds with potent antitumor activity.

A Combined Study Using Ligand-Based Design, Synthesis, and Pharmacological Evaluation of Analogues of the Acetaminophen Ortho-Regioisomer with Potent Analgesic Activity

A ligand-based drug design study was performed to acetaminophen regioisomers as analgesic candidates employing quantum chemical calculations at the DFT/B3LYP level of theory and the 6-31G* basis set. To do so, many molecular descriptors were used such as highest occupied molecular orbital, ionization potential, HO bond dissociation energies, and spin densities, which might be related to quench reactivity of the tyrosyl radical to give N-acetyl-p-benzosemiquinone-imine through an initial electron withdrawing or hydrogen atom abstraction. Based on this in silico work, the most promising molecule, orthobenzamol, was synthesized and tested. The results expected from the theoretical prediction were confirmed in vivo using mouse models of nociception such as writhing, paw licking, and hot plate tests. All biological results suggested an antinociceptive activity mediated by opioid receptors. Furthermore, at 90 and 120 min, this new compound had an effect that was comparable to morphine, the standard drug for this test. Finally, the pharmacophore model is discussed according to the electronic properties derived from quantum chemistry calculations.

PTEN Directly Activates the Actin Depolymerization Factor Cofilin-1 During PGE(2)-Mediated Inhibition of Phagocytosis of Fungi

Macrophage ingestion of the yeast Candida albicans requires its recognition by multiple receptors and the activation of diverse signaling programs. Synthesis of the lipid mediator prostaglandin E-2 (PGE(2)) and generation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) also accompany this process. Here, we characterized the mechanisms underlying PGE(2)-mediated inhibition of phagocytosis and filamentous actin (F-actin) polymerization in response to ingestion of C. albicans by alveolar macrophages. PGE(2) suppressed phagocytosis and F-actin formation through the PGE(2) receptors EP2 and EP4, cAMP, and activation of types I and II protein kinase A. Dephosphorylation and activation of the actin depolymerizing factor cofilin-1 were necessary for these inhibitory effects of PGE(2). PGE(2)-dependent activation of cofilin-1 was mediated by the protein phosphatase activity of PTEN (phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome 10), with which it directly associated. Because enhanced production of PGE(2) accompanies many immunosuppressed states, the PTEN-dependent pathway described here may contribute to impaired antifungal defenses.

Synthesis, structure and conformation of oligo- and polysaccharides

Carbohydrates are a complex group of biomolecules with a high structural diversity. Their almost omnipresent occurrence has generated a broad field of research in both biology and chemistry. This thesis focuses on three different aspects of carbohydrate chemistry, synthesis, structure elucidation and the conformational analysis of carbohydrates. The first paper describes the synthesis of a penta- and a tetrasaccharide related to the highly branched capsular polysaccharide from Streptococcus pneumoniae type 37. In the second paper, the structure of the O-antigenic repeating unit from the lipopolysaccharide of E. coli 396/C1 was determined along with indications of the structure of the biological repeating unit. In addition, its structural and immunological relationship with E. coli O126 is discussed. In the third paper, partially protected galactopyranosides were examined to clarify the origin of an intriguing 4JHO,H coupling, where a W-mediated coupling pathway was found to operate. In the fourth paper, the conformation of methyl a-cellobioside is studied with a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and NMR spectroscopy. In addition to the expected syn-conformation, detection and quantification of anti-ø and anti-ψ conformers was also possible.

Expanding the scope of poly(ethylene glycol)s for bioconjugation to squaric acid-mediated PEGylation and pH-sensitivity

Poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) is used in a broad range of applications due to its unique combination of properties and is approved use in formulations for body-care products, edibles and medicine. This thesis aims at the synthesis and characterization of novel heterofunctional PEG structures and the establishment of diethyl squarate as a suitable linker for the covalent attachment to proteins. Chapter 1 is an introduction on the properties and applications of PEG as well as the fascinating chemistry of squaric acid derivatives. In Chapter 1.1, the synthesis and properties of PEG are described, and the versatile applications of PEG derivatives in everyday products are emphasized with a focus on PEG-based pharmaceuticals and nonionic surfactants. This chapter is written in German, as it was published in the German Journal Chemie in unserer Zeit. Chapter 1.2 deals with PEGs major drawbacks, its non-biodegradability, which impedes parenteral administration of PEG conjugates with polyethers exceeding the renal excretion limit, although these would improve blood circulation times and passive tumor targeting. This section gives a comprehensive overview of the cleavable groups that have been implemented in the polyether backbone to tackle this issue as well as the synthetic strategies employed to accomplish this task. Chapter 1.3 briefly summarizes the chemical properties of alkyl squarates and the advantages in protein conjugation chemistry that can be taken from its use as a coupling agent. In Chapter 2, the application of diethyl squarate as a coupling agent in the PEGylation of proteins is illustrated. Chapter 2.1 describes the straightforward synthesis and characterization of squaric acid ethyl ester amido PEGs with terminal hydroxyl functions or methoxy groups. The reactivity and selectivity of theses activated PEGs are explored in kinetic studies on the reactions with different lysine and other amino acid derivatives, followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy. Further, the efficient attachment of the novel PEGs to a model protein, i.e., bovine serum albumin (BSA), demonstrates the usefulness of the new linker for the PEGylation with heterofunctional PEGs. In Chapter 2.3 initial studies on the biocompatibility of polyether/BSA conjugates synthesized by the squaric acid mediated PEGylation are presented. No cytotoxic effects on human umbilical vein endothelial cells exposed to various concentrations of the conjugates were observed in a WST-1 assay. A cell adhesion molecule - enzyme immunosorbent assay did not reveal the expression of E-selectin or ICAM-1, cell adhesion molecules involved in inflammation processes. The focus of Chapter 3 lies on the syntheses of novel heterofunctional PEG structures which are suitable candidates for the squaric acid mediated PEGylation and exhibit superior features compared to established PEGs applied in bioconjugation. Chapter 3.1 describes the synthetic route to well-defined, linear heterobifunctional PEGs carrying a single acid-sensitive moiety either at the initiation site or at a tunable position in the polyether backbone. A universal concept for the implementation of acetal moieties into initiators for the anionic ring-opening polymerization (AROP) of epoxides is presented and proven to grant access to the degradable PEG structures aimed at. The hydrolysis of the heterofunctional PEG with the acetal moiety at the initiating site is followed by 1H NMR spectroscopy in deuterium oxide at different pH. In an exploratory study, the same polymer is attached to BSA via the squarate acid coupling and subsequently cleaved from the conjugate under acidic conditions. Furthermore, the concept for the generation of acetal-modified AROP initiators is demonstrated to be suitable for cholesterol, and the respective amphiphilic cholesteryl-PEG is cleaved at lowered pH. In Chapter 3.2, the straightforward synthesis of α-amino ω2-dihydroxyl star-shaped three-arm PEGs is described. To assure a symmetric length of the hydroxyl-terminated PEG arms, a novel AROP initiator is presented, who’s primary and secondary hydroxyl groups are separated by an acetal moiety. Upon polymerization of ethylene oxide for these functionalities and subsequent cleavage of the acid-labile unit no difference in the degree of polymerization is seen for both polyether fragments.

Effect of electroporation-mediated diphtheria toxin A expression on PSA positive human prostate xenograft tumors in SCID mice

Current therapies to treat prostate cancer are often limited. Since it has been shown that very low concentrations of diphtheria toxin A (DT-A) result in abrogation of protein synthesis and apoptosis of cells, DT-A might serve as an efficient killer in cancer gene therapy. For this purpose we investigated in a quantitative manner using a stereological approach the apoptotic effect of DT-A in androgen receptor (AR) and prostate specific antigen (PSA) expressing cells after tumor formation in both flanks of SCID mice.

Synthesis and biological activity of new functionalized epothilones for prodrug design and tumor targeting

Epothilones are potent antiproliferative agents, which have served as successful lead structures for anticancer drug discovery. However, their therapeutic efficacy would benefit greatly from an increase in their selectivity for tumor cells, which may be achieved through conjugation with a tumor-targeting moiety. Three novel epothilone analogs bearing variously functionalized benzimidazole side chains were synthesized using a strategy based on palladium-mediated coupling and macrolactonization. The synthesis of these compounds is described and their in vitro biological activity is discussed with respect to their interactions with the tubulin/microtubule system and the inhibition of human cancer cell proliferation. The additional functional groups may be used to synthesize conjugates of epothilone derivatives with a variety of tumor-targeting moieties.

Synthesis, maturation, and trafficking of human Na+-dicarboxylate cotransporter NaDC1 requires the chaperone activity of cyclophilin B

Renal excretion of citrate, an inhibitor of calcium stone formation, is controlled mainly by reabsorption via the apical Na(+)-dicarboxylate cotransporter NaDC1 (SLC13A2) in the proximal tubule. Recently, it has been shown that the protein phosphatase calcineurin inhibitors cyclosporin A (CsA) and FK-506 induce hypocitraturia, a risk factor for nephrolithiasis in kidney transplant patients, but apparently through urine acidification. This suggests that these agents up-regulate NaDC1 activity. Using the Xenopus lævis oocyte and HEK293 cell expression systems, we examined first the effect of both anti-calcineurins on NaDC1 activity and expression. While FK-506 had no effect, CsA reduced NaDC1-mediated citrate transport by lowering heterologous carrier expression (as well as endogenous carrier expression in HEK293 cells), indicating that calcineurin is not involved. Given that CsA also binds specifically to cyclophilins, we determined next whether such proteins could account for the observed changes by examining the effect of selected cyclophilin wild types and mutants on NaDC1 activity and cyclophilin-specific siRNA. Interestingly, our data show that the cyclophilin isoform B is likely responsible for down-regulation of carrier expression by CsA and that it does so via its chaperone activity on NaDC1 (by direct interaction) rather than its rotamase activity. We have thus identified for the first time a regulatory partner for NaDC1, and have gained novel mechanistic insight into the effect of CsA on renal citrate transport and kidney stone disease, as well as into the regulation of membrane transporters in general.

A General Approach Towards the Synthesis of Amido-Functionalized Biodegradable Polyesters

The thesis presented here describes methodologies to produce pendant group functionalized polyesters from amido-functionalized α-hydroxy acids. The synthetic methods used to produce the functionalized α-hydroxy acids are compatible with a wide array of functional groups, making this technique highly versatile. The synthesis of functionalized polyesters was investigated to develop polymers with properties that may improve the capabilities of existing biodegradable polyesters for applications in controlled release pharmaceuticals. Chemically modified a-hydroxy acids were synthesized by reacting glyoxylic acid with a primary or secondary amide. To demonstrate the utility of this reaction, fourstructurally dissimilar amide substituents were examined including 2-pyrrolidione, benzamide, acetamide and acrylamide. The reaction is synthetically simple, provides high yields and is uniquely flexible, functionalized monomer. The compatibility of this procedure with the collection of functional groups mentioned circumvents the need for syntheses. The amido-functionalized monomers were polymerized by two different techniques: melt polycondensation and solution polymerization. Melt polycondensation was conducted by heating the monomer past its melting temperature under reduced pressure. Oligomeric functionalized polyesters (= 800 g/mol) with low PDIs (= 1.05) were obtained by melt polycondensation. Melt polycondensation was not compatible with all of the synthesized monomers. Two of the monomers (containing benzamide and acrylamide functionalities) degraded before the polycondensation reaction occurred. Thermal gravimetric analysis confirmed that a process other than polyesterification was occurring, indicating that some amido-functionalized α-hydroxy acids cannot be synthesized in the melt.Solution polymerization was conducted to polymerize functionalized α-hydroxy acids that were incompatible with melt polycondensation. Several modified Steglich polyesterifications were tested including p-toluenesulfonic acid mediated and scandium (III) triflate catalyzed. Only oligomeric functionalized polyesters were formed bythis method. A number of possible side reactions including the formation of an N-acylurea and a cyclic polymer ring were possible. The utility of this procedure appears to be limited due to the complexity of the reaction and its inability to produce high molecular weight polymer.

Evidence for dissociation of TLR mRNA expression and TLR agonist-mediated functions in bovine macrophages

Toll-like receptors are of key importance in the recognition of and response to infectious agents by cells of the innate immune system. TLR mRNA expression and TLR-mediated functions were determined in bovine macrophages (MPhi) infected with bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) or stimulated with interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) in order to see whether they are correlated under these conditions. As parameters quantitative real time RT-PCR (QRT-PCR) for TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4, NO and TNF production were measured. Triggering of bovine MPhi with bona fide TLR2 and TLR4 agonists (lipopolysaccharide, lipoteichoic acid, peptidoglycan, lipopetide) led to NO and TNF production but neither TLR3 nor TLR9 agonists (double-stranded RNA, CpG DNA) showed this effect. The mRNA expression of TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4 was neither influenced by MPhi costimulation with IFN-gamma nor by MPhi preinfection with BVDV nor by the ligands themselves. However, NO production induced by TLR2 or TLR4 agonists was strongly modulated either by IFN-gamma costimulation or BVDV preinfection. Thus costimulation of MPhi with IFN-gamma resulted in an increase of both NO synthesis and TNF expression by cells stimulated simultaneously by TLR2 or TLR4 agonists. Preinfection of bovine MPhi by BVDV resulted in upregulation of TLR2- and TLR4-mediated NO synthesis. Collectively, these data show that TLR-mediated functions may be modulated by viral infection or activation via IFN-gamma of MPhi whereas the mRNA concentrations of relevant TLR members were not significantly influenced. Thus, the amount of TLR2, TLR3 and TLR4 mRNA transcripts is stable at least under the conditions tested. More importantly, modulation of TLR-mediated responses was dissociated from mRNA expression of TLR members.