Small states and the promotion of their foreign policy agenda in the international scenario: Trinidad and Tobago and the Kyoto Protocol

Este estudio de caso busca identificar los elementos del portafolio de política exterior de Trinidad y Tobago que le permitieron promover exitosamente sus intereses en el Protocolo de Kioto. Al hacer esto, este texto analizará las limitaciones de Trinidad y Tobago en términos de vulnerabilidades de localización, burocracia y recursos. Posteriormente, una revisión del portafolio de política exterior de este Estado ilustrará el uso de estrategias de creación de capacidades y de organización como lo son el contacto con actores institucionales y no gubernamentales, la formación de coaliciones y estrategias argumentativas, entre otras. Finalmente, este artículo concluirá que dichas acciones permitieron la promoción de la agenda de política exterior de Trinidad y Tobago a través de la creación de hojas de ruta y la coordinación de la incertidumbre con el Protocolo de Kioto. Para hacer esto, este trabajo se concentrará en examinar conceptos como vulnerabilidad y priorización, asimismo contrastando diferentes artículos académicos en la materia junto con documentos oficiales de Trinidad y Tobago.

Overexpression Of Ucp1 In Tobacco Induces Mitochondrial Biogenesis And Amplifies A Broad Stress Response.

Uncoupling protein one (UCP1) is a mitochondrial inner membrane protein capable of uncoupling the electrochemical gradient from adenosine-5'-triphosphate (ATP) synthesis, dissipating energy as heat. UCP1 plays a central role in nonshivering thermogenesis in the brown adipose tissue (BAT) of hibernating animals and small rodents. A UCP1 ortholog also occurs in plants, and aside from its role in uncoupling respiration from ATP synthesis, thereby wasting energy, it plays a beneficial role in the plant response to several abiotic stresses, possibly by decreasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and regulating cellular redox homeostasis. However, the molecular mechanisms by which UCP1 is associated with stress tolerance remain unknown. Here, we report that the overexpression of UCP1 increases mitochondrial biogenesis, increases the uncoupled respiration of isolated mitochondria, and decreases cellular ATP concentration. We observed that the overexpression of UCP1 alters mitochondrial bioenergetics and modulates mitochondrial-nuclear communication, inducing the upregulation of hundreds of nuclear- and mitochondrial-encoded mitochondrial proteins. Electron microscopy analysis showed that these metabolic changes were associated with alterations in mitochondrial number, area and morphology. Surprisingly, UCP1 overexpression also induces the upregulation of hundreds of stress-responsive genes, including some involved in the antioxidant defense system, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). As a consequence of the increased UCP1 activity and increased expression of oxidative stress-responsive genes, the UCP1-overexpressing plants showed reduced ROS accumulation. These beneficial metabolic effects may be responsible for the better performance of UCP1-overexpressing lines in low pH, high salt, high osmolarity, low temperature, and oxidative stress conditions. Overexpression of UCP1 in the mitochondrial inner membrane induced increased uncoupling respiration, decreased ROS accumulation under abiotic stresses, and diminished cellular ATP content. These events may have triggered the expression of mitochondrial and stress-responsive genes in a coordinated manner. Because these metabolic alterations did not impair plant growth and development, UCP1 overexpression can potentially be used to create crops better adapted to abiotic stress conditions.

Tubular Variant Of Basal Cell Adenoma Shares Immunophenotypical Features With Normal Intercalated Ducts And Is Closely Related To Intercalated Duct Lesions Of Salivary Gland.

The morphological criteria for identification of intercalated duct lesions (IDLs) of salivary glands have been defined recently. It has been hypothesised that IDL could be a precursor of basal cell adenoma (BCA). BCAs show a variety of histological patterns, and the tubular variant is the one that presents the strongest resemblance with IDLs. The aim of this study was to analyse the morphological and immunohistochemical profiles of IDLs and BCAs classified into tubular and non-tubular subtypes, to determine whether or not IDL and tubular BCA represent distinct entities. Eight IDLs, nine tubular BCAs and 19 non-tubular BCAs were studied. All tubular BCAs contained IDL-like areas, which represented 20-70% of the tumour. In non-tubular BCA, IDL-like areas were occasional and small (<5%). One patient presented IDLs, tubular BCAs and IDL/tubular BCA combined lesions. Luminal ductal cells of IDLs and tubular BCAs exhibited positivity for CK7, lysozyme, S100 and DOG1. In the non-tubular BCA group, few luminal cells exhibited such an immunoprofile; they were mainly CK14-positive. Basal/myoepithelial cells of IDLs, tubular BCAs and non-tubular BCAs were positive for CK14, calponin, α-SMA and p63; they were more numerous in BCA lesions. IDL, tubular BCA and non-tubular BCA form a continuum of lesions in which IDLs are related closely to tubular BCA. In both, the immunoprofile of luminal and myoepithelial cells recapitulates the normal intercalated duct. The difference between the adenoma-like subset of IDLs and tubular BCA rests mainly on the larger numbers of myoepithelial cells in the latter. Our findings indicate that at least some BCAs can arise via IDLs.

Sex ratio and morphological characteristics of rufous gnateaters, Conopophaga lineata (Aves, Passeriformes) in Atlantic forest fragments

Unequal sex ratios lead to the loss of genetic variability, decreasing the viability of populations in the long term. Anthropogenic activities often disturb the natural habitats and can cause alterations in sex ratio and morphological characteristics of several species. Forest fragmentation is a major conservation concern, so that understanding its effects in natural populations is essential. In this study, we evaluated the sex ratio and the morphological characteristics of Rufous Gnateaters (Conopophaga lineata (Wied, 1831)) in small and large forest fragments in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Birds (n = 89) were sexed by plumage characteristics and molecular markers. The molecular analysis showed that plumage is not a totally reliable method for sexing Rufous Gnateaters. We observed that sex ratio did not differ between large and small forest fragments, but birds in small fragments had larger wings and tarsus. Wing and tarsus changes may affect the movement ability of individuals within and among forest fragments. In conclusion, Rufous Gnateaters have been able to survive in both small and large Atlantic rain forest fragments without altering their sex ratio, but morphological changes can be prejudicial to their long term survival.

Culex quinquefasciatus vitellogenesis: morphological and biochemical aspects

The vitellogenic process in Culex quinquefasciatus, which is triggered by a blood meal, involves the synthesis, distribution and storage of the nutrients necessary for embryo development. The fat body of an adult female Cx. quinquefasciatus revealed two cell types: large trophocytes and small, eosinophilic, "oenocyte-like" cells, which show no morphological changes throughout the gonotrophic cycle. Trophocytes, which only begin to synthesise vitellogenin (Vg) 12 h post-blood meal (PBM), undergo a series of morphological changes following engorgement. These changes include the expansion of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and Golgi complex, which are later destroyed by autophagosomes. At 84 h PBM, trophocytes return to their pre-engorgement morphology. The ovarian follicles of non-blood-fed Cx. quinquefasciatus contain a cluster of eight undifferentiated cells surrounded by follicular epithelium. After engorgement, the oocyte membrane facing the perioocytic space increases its absorptive surface by microvilli development; large amounts of Vg and lipids are stored between 24 and 48 h PBM. Along with yolk storage in the oocyte, follicular cells exhibit the development of RER cisternae and electron-dense granules begin to fill the perioocytic space, possibly giving rise to endochorion. Later in the gonotrophic cycle, electron-dense vesicles, which are possible exochorion precursors, fuse at the apical membrane of follicular cells. This fusion is followed by follicular cell degeneration.

Synthesis, screening for antiacetylcholinesterase activity and binding mode prediction of a new series of [3-(disubstituted-phosphate)-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyl]-carbamic acid ethyl esters

A series of nine new [3-(disubstituted-phosphate)-4,4,4-trifluoro-butyl]-carbamic acid ethyl esters (phosphate-carbamate compounds) was obtained through the reaction of (4,4,4-trifluoro-3-hydroxybut-1-yl)-carbamic acid ethyl esters with phosphorus oxychloride followed by the addition of alcohols. The products were characterized by ¹H, 13C, 31P, and 19F NMR spectroscopy, GC-MS, and elemental analysis. All the synthesized compounds were screened for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitory activity using the Ellman method. All compounds containing phosphate and carbamate pharmacophores in their structures showed enzyme inhibition, being the compound bearing the diethoxy phosphate group (2b) the most active compound. Molecular modeling studies were performed to investigate the detailed interactions between AChE active site and small-molecule inhibitor candidates, providing valuable structural insights into AChE inhibition.

Effects of perinatal protein deprivation and recovery on esophageal myenteric plexus

AIM: To evaluate effects of pre- and postnatal protein deprivation and postnatal recovery on the myenteric plexus of the rat esophagus. METHODS: Three groups of young Wistar rats (aged 42 d) were studied: normal-fed (N42), protein-deprived (D42), and protein-recovered (R42). The myenteric neurons of their esophagi were evaluated by histochemical reactions for nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), nitrergic neurons (NADPH)-diaphorase and acetylcholinesterase (AChE), immunohistochemical reaction for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), and ultrastructural analysis by transmission electron microscopy. RESULTS: The cytoplasms of large and medium neurons from the N42 and R42 groups were intensely reactive for NADH. Only a few large neurons from the D42 group exhibited this aspect. NADPH detected in the D42 group exhibited low reactivity. The AChE reactivity was diffuse in neurons from the D42 and R42 groups. The density of large and small varicosities detected by immunohistochemical staining of VIP was low in ganglia from the D42 group. In many neurons from the D42 group, the double membrane of the nuclear envelope and the perinuclear cisterna were not detectable. NADH and NADPH histochemistry revealed no group differences in the profile of nerve cell perikarya (ranging from 200 to 400 mu m(2)). CONCLUSION: Protein deprivation causes a delay in neuronal maturation but postnatal recovery can almost completely restore the normal morphology of myenteric neurons. (C) 2010 Baishideng. All rights reserved.

Parton energy loss in heavy-ion collisions via direct-photon and charged-particle azimuthal correlations

Charged-particle spectra associated with direct photon (gamma(dir)) and pi(0) are measured in p + p and Au + Au collisions at center-of-mass energy root(S)(NN) = 200 GeV with the STAR detector at the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. A shower-shape analysis is used to partially discriminate between gamma(dir) and pi(0). Assuming no associated charged particles in the gamma(dir) direction ( near side) and small contribution from fragmentation photons (gamma(frag)), the associated charged-particle yields opposite to gamma(dir) (away side) are extracted. In central Au + Au collisions, the charged-particle yields at midrapidity (vertical bar eta vertical bar < 1) and high transverse momentum (3 < (assoc)(PT) < 16 GeV/c) associated with gamma(dir) and pi(0) (vertical bar eta vertical bar < 0.9, 8 < (trig)(PT) < 16 GeV/c) are suppressed by a factor of 3-5 compared with p + p collisions. The observed suppression of the associated charged particles is similar for gamma(dir) and pi(0) and independent of the gamma(dir) energy within uncertainties. These measurements indicate that, in the kinematic range covered and within our current experimental uncertainties, the parton energy loss shows no sensitivity to the parton initial energy, path length, or color charge.

Regulating industrial forest concessions in Central Africa and South America

Tropical countries face special specific problems in implementing sustainable forest management (SFM). In many countries, questions are raised on whether tropical forests should be publicly, commonly or privately owned and managed in order to enhance sustainability. Other debates also focus on whether small-scale enterprises are better positioned than large-scale industrial concessions to reduce poverty and attain sustainable management. In countries where large tracts of forest are state-owned, concessions are viewed as a means of delivering services of public and collective interest through an association of private investment and public regulation. However, the success of an industrial concession model in countries with large forest resource endowment to achieve multiple goals such as sustainable forest management and local/regional development depends on two critical assumptions. First, forest functions and services should be managed and maintained as public goods. In many cases, additional uses - and corresponding rights - can take place alongside logging activities. Industrial concessions can be more efficient than other tenure models (such as community-based forest management and small-scale enterprises) in achieving SFM, add value to raw material and comply with growing environmental norms. This is especially the case in market-remote areas with low population density and poor infrastructure. Secondly, to achieve these different outcomes, any concession system needs to be monitored and regulated, especially in contexts dominated by asymmetrical information between regulating authorities and concessionaires. New institutional responses have recently been put forward in several countries, providing valuable materials to design a renewed policy mix which associates public and private incentives. This paper provides a survey of the experience of forest concessions in several Central African and South American countries. The concession system is examined in order to clarify the issues involved, the problems encountered, and what can be learned from the shared experience of these countries in the last decade. This paper argues that despite a sometimes patchy record, concessions can help promote SFM so long as they are packaged with a certain number of specific measures. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Influence of Granulometry and Organic Treatment of a Brazilian Montmorillonite on the Properties of Poly(styrene-co-n-butyl acrylate)/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites Prepared by Miniemulsion Polymerization

The influence of granulometry and organic treatment of a Brazilian montmorillonite (MMT) clay on the synthesis and properties of poly(styrene-co-n-butyl acrylate)/layered silicate nanocomposites was studied. Hybrid latexes of poly(styrene-co-butyl acrylate)/MMT were synthesized via miniemulsion polymerization using either sodium or organically modified MMT. Five clay granulometries ranging from clay particles smaller than 75 mu m to colloidal size were selected. The size of the clay particles was evaluated by Specific surface area measurements (BET). Cetyl trimethyl ammonium chloride was used as an organic modifier to enhance the clay compatibility with the monomer phase before polymerization and to improve the clav distribution and dispersion within the polymeric matrix after polymerization. The sodium and organically modified natural clays as well as the composites were characterized by X-ray diffraction analysis. The latexes were characterized by dynamic light scattering. The mechanical, thermal, and rheological properties of the composites obtained were characterized by dynamical-mechanical analysis, thermogravimetry, and small amplitude oscillatory, shear tests, respectively. The results showed that smaller the size of the organically modified MMT, the higher the degree of exfoliation of nanoplatelets. Hybrid latexes in presence of Na-MMT resulted in materials with intercalated structures. (C) 2009 Wiley, Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 112: 1949-1958, 2009

Absorption and metabolism of cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-rutinoside extracted from wild mulberry (Morus nigra L.) in rats

The mechanism of uptake of anthocyanins (as well as the type) from food in the intestine is not clear. Anthocyanin-rich extract from wild mulberry, composed of cyanidin-3-glucoside (79%) and cyanidin-3-rutino side (cy-3-rut) (19%), was orally administered to Wistar rats, and their concentrations were determined in plasma, kidney, and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The 2 glycosylated forms showed maximum concentration at 15 minutes after oral administration, both in plasma and kidney. The cyanidin-3-glucoside and cy-3-rut were found in plasma as glucuronides, as sulfates of cyanidin, and as unchanged forms. The area under the curve of concentration vs time (AUC(0-8h)) was 2.76 +/- 0.88 mu g hour/mL and 9.74 +/- 0.75 mu g hour/g for plasma and kidney, respectively. In spite of the low absorption, the increase in plasma anthocyanin level resulted in a significant increase in antioxidant capacity (P < .05). In the GI tract (stomach and small and large intestines), cyanidin glycosides were found unchanged, but a low amount of the aglycone form was present. Anthocyanin glycosides were no longer detected in the GI tract after 8 hours of administration. In vitro fermentation showed that the 2 cyanidin glycosides were totally metabolized by the rat colonic microflora, explaining their disappearance. In addition, the 2 products of their degradation, cyanidin and protocatechuic acid, were not detected in plasma and probably do not influence plasma antioxidant capacity. As found by the everted sac model, anthocyanins were transported across the enterocyte by the sodium-dependent glucose transporter. (c) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A technological and organisational explanation for the size distribution of firms

This paper combines insights from the literature on the economics of organisation with traditional models of market structure to construct a theory of equilibrium firm size heterogeneity under the assumption of a homogenous product industry. It is possible that configurations consisting entirely of small firms (run by entrepreneurs with limited attention) and with larger firms (using managerial techniques to substitute away these limits to allow increasing returns technologies to become profitable) can arise in equilibrium. However, there also exist equilibrium configurations with the co-existence of large and small firms. The efficiency properties of these respective equilibria are discussed. Finally, the implications of an expanding market size are considered.

Horizontal alliances amongst small retailers in Brazil

Purpose - Application of the horizontal alliance paradigm has particularly relevance to small retailers. It is a powerful mechanism for independents and non-integrated chain retailers to develop competitive advantage, maintaining and improving their performance. The purpose of this article is to analyse the theory of alliance in the context of the retail sector. Design/methodology/approach - Both quantitative and qualitative research was carried out with horizontal retail alliances in Brazil. Findings - Focusing on the alliances among independents and non-integrated chain retailers, our discussion covers specifically the following issues: the reasons for forming a strategic alliance in retail; minimum criteria for the alliance activity amongst retailers; steps that managers must take to create a competitive retail alliance; critical core competencies to be developed on the retail alliance; types of retail alliances; and, finally, forms of strategic retail alliances and stages/steps to develop a retail alliance over time. Research limitations/implications - The study considers horizontal alliances in a Brazilian retail context, which is in some ways unique, however, key principles and findings are very much transferable. Practical implications/implications - The study is of value not only to researchers of retail horizontal alliances, but offers retail practitioners specific experience and guidance. Originality/value - It was identified from the literature that there have been relatively few theoretical and practical studies available that analyse the relationship between the outlined themes concerned with alliances and small retailers. The discussion in our paper provides useful information and new insights to both academics and practitioners.

Molecular phylogenetics of Chaetodon and the Chaetodontidae (Teleostei : Perciformes) with reference to morphology

Butterflyfish are colourful, pan-tropical coastal fish that are important and distinctive members of coral reef communities. A successful systematic scheme and a robust phylogeny is considered essential in understanding further their biogeography and ecology, although recent cladistic treatments of butterflyfish phylogeny, based on soft tissue and bone morphology and coded at the generic and subgeneric levels, differ in character coding and subsequently tree topology. This study provides an independent test of the morphologically based hypotheses, using molecular systematic data from two partial mitochondrial gene fragments, cytochrome b (cytb) and small subunit rRNA (rrnS), for 52 ingroup chaetodontids and seven pomacanthids used to root the molecular trees. Individual gene trees were largely compatible and a combined molecular phylogeny, inferred from Bayesian analysis, was used to test alternative hypotheses suggested by morphological analyses. The tree was also used to map the latest morphological matrix in order to evaluate potential synapomorphies for various nodes defining butterflyfish interrelationships. A clade comprised of Chelmon and Coradion was sister group to other chaetodontids. Heniochus and Hemitaurichthys were each resolved as monophyletic groups, and as sister taxa Of the taxa sampled, Prognothodes was resolved as the sister genus to Chaeotodon. Of the ten Chaetodon subgenera sampled, all were monophyletic but their interrelationships differed significantly from that inferred from morphological characters. Lepidochaetodon was the most basal subgenus followed by Exornator and the remaining subgenera. Molecular data support the sister group relationship between Corallochaetodon and Citharoedus suggested by morphology, but major differences occur among the remaining more derived taxa. Chaetodon trifascialis and C. oligacanthus were resolved as sister taxa adding weight to the inclusion of the latter in C. Megaprotodon. Of those pairs of taxa known to hybridize and sampled with molecular data, all were closely related phylogenetically, except those hybrids known to occur in the Rabdophorus subgenus. Two base changes separated C. pelewensis from C. paucifasciatus which have been regarded previously as a single species. Cytb provided greater resolution than rrnS and will likely provide additional resolution with greater taxon sampling.

Preliminary study of human breast tissue using synchrotron radiation combining WAXS and SAXS techniques

Using synchrotron radiation, we combined simultaneously wide angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) techniques to obtain the scattering profiles of normal and neoplastic breast tissu-es samples at the momentum transfer range 6.28 nm(-1) <= Q(=4 pi.sin(theta/2)lambda) <= 50.26 nm(-1) and 0.15 nm(-1) <= Q <= 1.90 nm(-1), respectively. The results obtained show considerable differences between the scattering profiles of these tissues. We verified that the combination of some parameters (ratio between glandular and adipose peak intensity and third-order axial peak intensity) extracted from scattering profiles can be used for identifying breast cancer. (c) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.