Gorgonians of the South of Portugal: biology, ecology and conservation

O papel ecológico das gorgónias (Octocorallia: Alcyonacea) nos fundos marinhos rochosos é mundialmente reconhecido. Contudo, a informação acerca da ecologia e biologia das espécies de gorgónias nas zonas temperadas do NE Atlântico é manifestamente escassa, especialmente tendo em consideração as actuais perturbações globais, regionais e locais. Nos fundos rochosos da costa algarvia até aos 30 m, verificouse que várias espécies de gorgónias são abundantes e frequentes, nomeadamente Eunicella labiata, Eunicella gazella, Eunicella verrucosa, Leptogorgia lusitanica e Leptogorgia sarmentosa. As populações de gorgónias são co-dominadas por diferentes espécies que apresentaram elevados índices de associação, indicando reduzidos níveis de competição entre elas. Em todo o caso, a estrutura dos povoamentos diferiu com as condições locais. Todas as espécies evidenciaram padrões de distribuição semelhantes ao longo do gradiente de profundidade, i.e. a abundância aumenta significamente com a profundidade após os 15 m. A profundidades mais baixas (até aos 15 m), a distribuição das gorgónias parece ser condicionada por factores abióticos e pela competição com algas. Com efeito, os padrões de distribuição espacial das espécies de gorgónias na costa algarvia são determinados pela interacção de pressões naturais e antropogénicas (ex. pesca). Ainda que as colónias de maior tamanho não tenham sido restritas a áreas menos pescadas, em áreas mais perturbadas pela pesca, a distribuição dos tamanhos das colónias estava maioritariamente desviada para tamanhos mais pequenos. Os efeitos das perturbações naturais nas populações de gorgónias foram evidenciados pela ocorrência de padrões demográficos distintos em áreas vizinhas sujeitas a níveis semelhantes de pressões antropogénicas. Estes estudos demonstraram, ainda, que os efeitos na distribuição de frequências de tamanho das colónias são dependentes das espécies de gorgónias em causa: Eunicella labiata não parece ser afectada; Leptogorgia sarmentosa é tendencialmente afectada por pressões antropogénicas; Eunicella gazella e Leptogorgia lusitanica aparentam ser afectadas, quer por pressões naturais, quer por pressões antropogénicas. Os efeitos verificados nos padrões da distribuição de frequências de tamanho, particularmente a tendência para o desvio destas frequências para tamanhos mais pequenos em áreas sujeitas a perturbações, poderão ter consequências para a biodiversidade dos fundos sublitorais rochosos na costa algarvia. Com efeito, o presente estudo apoia o paradigma geral de que os corais são habitats que suportam comunidades de elevada biodiversidade e abundância. Num dos poucos estudos que examinam a relação entre as gorgónias e as suas comunidades de invertebrados epibentónicos, foi verificado que as gorgónias (Eunicella gazella e Leptogorgia lusitanica) sustentam comunidades ricas (11 phyla, 181 taxa) e abundantes (7284 indivíduos). Estas comunidades são dominadas por anfípodes, mas os poliquetas tiveram um grande contributo para os níveis elevados de biodiversidade. Verificou-se, igualmente, que o tamanho da colónia desempenha um papel fundamental na biodiversidade, na medida em que as colónias de menor tamanho apresentaram um contributo mais baixo, comparativamente às médias e grandes. Ainda que ambas as gorgónias partilhem a maioria das espécies amostradas, 11 e 18 taxa foram exclusivos de Eunicella gazella e Leptogorgia lusitanica, respectivamente (excluindo indivíduos com presenças únicas). No entanto, a maioria destes taxa eram ou pouco abundantes ou pouco frequentes. A excepção foi a presença de planárias (Turbellaria) de coloração branca nas colónias de Eunicella gazella, provavelmente beneficiando do efeito de camuflagem proporcionado pelos ramos com a mesma coloração. Com efeito, a complementaridade entre as comunidades epibentónicas associadas a ambas as gorgónias diminuiu quando usados os dados de presença/ausência, sugerindo que os padrões de biodiversidade são mais afectados pelas alterações na abundância relativa das espécies dominantes do que pela composição faunística. As comunidades de epifauna bentónica associadas a estas gorgónias não só apresentaram valores elevados de ®-diversidade, como de ¯- diversidade, resultantes de padrões intrincados de variabilidade na sua composição e estrutura. Ainda que o conjunto de espécies disponíveis para colonização seja, na generalidade, o mesmo para ambos os locais, cada colónia apresenta uma parte deste conjunto. Na sua totalidade, as colónias de gorgónias poderão funcionar como uma metacomunidade, mas a estrutura das comunidades associadas a cada colónia (ex. número total de espécies e abundância) parecem depender dos atributos da colónia, nomeadamente superfície disponível para colonização (altura, largura e área), complexidade e heterogeneidade (dimensão fractal e lacunaridade, respectivamente) e cobertura epibentónica “colonial” (ex. fauna colonial e algas macroscópicas; CEC). Numa primeira tentativa para quantificar a relação entre as gorgónias e os invertebrados epibentónicos a elas associados (em termos de abundância e riqueza específica), verificou-se que a natureza e a intensidade destas relações dependem da espécie hospedeira e variam para os grupos taxonómicos principais. No entanto, independentemente do grupo taxonómico, a riqueza específica e a abundância estão significativamente correlacionadas com a CEC. Com efeito, a CEC provavelmente devido a um efeito trófico (aumento da disponibilidade alimentar directo ou indirecto), combinado com a superfície disponível para colonização (efeito espécies-área) foram as variáveis mais relacionadas com os padrões de abundância e riqueza específica. Por outro lado, ainda que a complexidade estrutural seja frequentemente indicada como um dos factores responsáveis pela elevada diversidade e abundância das comunidades bentónicas associadas a corais, a dimensão fractal e a lacunaridade apenas foram relevantes nas comunidades associadas a Leptogorgia lusitanica. A validade do paradigma que defende que a complexidade estrutural promove a biodiversidade poderá ser, então, dependente da escala a que se realizam os estudos. No caso das gorgónias, o efeito da complexidade ao nível dos agregados de gorgónias poderá ser muito mais relevante do que ao nível da colónia individual, reforçando a importância da sua conservação como um todo, por forma a preservar a diversidade de espécies hospedeiras, o seu tamanho e estrutura. Actividades antropogénicas como a pesca, podem, ainda, ter efeitos negativos ao nível da reprodução de espécies marinhas. Analogamente ao verificado para os padrões de distribuição espacial das populações de gorgónias na costa algarvia, a informação relativa à sua reprodução é igualmente escassa. Os estudos realizados em populações de Eunicella gazella a 16m de profundidade, demonstraram que o desenvolvimento anual das estruturas reprodutivas é altamente sincronizado entre os sexos. A razão entre sexos na população foi de 1.09 (F:M), encontrando-se perto da paridade. A espermatogénese estende-se por 6 a 8 meses, enquanto que a oogénese é mais demorada, levando mais de um ano para que os oócitos se desenvolvam até estarem maduros. Antes da libertação dos gâmetas, foi observada uma elevada fecundidade nas fêmeas (27.30§13.24 oócitos pólipo−1) e nos machos (49.30§31.14 sacos espermáticos pólipo−1). Estes valores encontram-se entre os mais elevados reportados à data para zonas temperadas. A libertação dos gâmetas (não há evidência de desenvolvimento larvar, nem à superfície da colónia, nem no seu interior) occorre em Setembro/ Outubro, após um período de elevada temperatura da água do mar. As fêmeas emitem oócitos maduros de elevadas dimensões, retendo, todavia, os oócitos imaturos que se desenvolvem apenas na época seguinte. Ainda que o efeito da pesca nas populações de gorgónias da costa do Algarve seja perceptível, às taxas actuais, o mergulho recreativo não aparenta afectar seriamente estas populações. Contudo, sendo uma indústria em expansão e conhecendo-se a preferência de mergulhadores por áreas rochosas naturais ricas em espécies bentónicas, futuramente poderá vir a afectar estes habitats. A monitorização de mergulhadores na costa algarvia mostrou que a sua maioria (88.6 %) apresenta comportamentos que podem impactar o habitat, com uma taxa média de contactos de 0.340§0.028 contactos min−1. Esta taxa foi mais elevada em mergulhadores com moderada experiência e na fase inicial do mergulho (0–10 min). Os contactos com as barbatanas e mãos foram comuns, resultando, maioritariamente, na resuspensão do sedimento, mas geralmente apresentando um impacto reduzido. Todavia, a fauna também foi afectada, quer por danos físicos, quer pela interacção com os mergulhadores, e num cenário de expansão significativa desta actividade, os impactos na fauna local poderão aumentar, com consequências para os ecossistemas de fundos rochosos da costa sul de Portugal. Na sua globalidade, a informação recolhida nos estudos que contemplam esta tese, por ser em grande parte totalmente nova para a região, espera-se que contribua para a gestão da zona costeira do Algarve.

Trophic plasticity in the cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis

Coral reefs are of utmost ecological and economical importance but are currently in global decline due to climate change and anthropogenic disturbances. Corals, as well as other cnidarian species, live in symbiosis with photosynthetic dinoflagellates of the genus Symbiodinium. This relationship provides the cnidarian host with alternative metabolic pathways, as the symbionts translocate photosynthetic carbon to the animal. Besides this autotrophic nutrition mode, symbiotic cnidarians also take up organic matter from the environment (heterotrophy). The nutritional balance between auto- and heterotrophy is critical for the functioning, fitness and resilience of the cnidariandinoflagellate symbiosis. New methodological approaches were developed to better understand the role of auto- and heterotrophy in the ecophysiology of cnidarians associated with Symbiodinium, and the ecological implications of this trophic plasticity. Specifically, the new approaches were developed to assess photophysiology, biomass production of the model organism Aiptasia sp. and molecular tools to investigate heterotrophy in the cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis. Using these approaches, we were able to non-invasively assess the photophysiological spatial heterogeneity of symbiotic cnidarians and identify spatial patterns between chlorophyll fluorescence and relative content of chlorophyll a and green-fluorescent proteins. Optimal culture conditions to maximize the biomass production of Aiptasia pallida were identified, as well as their implications on the fatty acid composition of the anemones. Molecular trophic markers were used to determine prey digestion times in symbiotic cnidarians, which vary between 1-3 days depending on prey species, predator species and the feeding history of the predator. This method was also used to demonstrate that microalgae is a potential food source for symbiotic corals. By using a stable isotope approach to assess the trophic ecology of the facultative symbiotic Oculina arbuscula in situ, it was possible to demonstrate the importance of pico- and nanoplanktonic organisms, particularly autotrophic, in the nutrition of symbiotic corals. Finally, we showed the effects of functional diversity of Symbiodinium on the nutritional plasticity of the cnidarian-dinoflagellate symbiosis. Symbiont identity defines this plasticity through its individual metabolic requirements, capacity to fix carbon, quantity of translocated carbon and the host’s capacity to feed and digest prey.

Cold-water coral communities in the Azores : diversity, habitat and conservation

Tese de Doutoramento, Ciências do Mar (especialidade em Ecologia Marinha), 11 de Setembro de 2015, Universidade dos Açores.

Temporal variation in the coral reefs of the east coast of the inner gulf of Thailand

A series of permanent line transects established on fourteen reefs on the eastern seaboard of the Gulf of Thailand were monitored through a three-year period (1995- 1998) using a video transect method. Hierarchical cluster analysis shows three distinctive reef community types dominated by 1) Porites, 2) Acropora and 3) zoantharians. The reefs are developed under naturally turbid conditions and relatively low salinity due to the proximity of four major river outlets located in the uppermost area of the gulf. The number of Acroporid species on the reefs is positively correlated with distance from the major flver outlets. Eighty-seven species of scleractinian coral were found on the transects. Over the three-year period, the comparison of 1995-97-98 matched stations using Repeated Measures ANOV A reveals no significant time-dependent change in percent area cover of reef components except for an overall significant reduction in the faviid coral component. In the 1997-98 matched station comparison, statistical tests reveal significant increases in both Acropora and Porites components that translated into an overall increase in total living coral cover. These findings indicate that the overall environmental conditions have been favorable for coral growth. Outcompetition of massive corals by faster growing corals on several reefs also indicates conditions favorable for reef expansion. Growth of newlyformed Porites colonies over primary rock substrate and dead coral skeleton was presumably responsible for its rapid increase. Although these reefs are in an area of rapid industrialization and population growth, resultant anthropogenic effects have not yet stopped active coral accretion.

Régulation transcriptionnelle du gène de la protéine de liaison de la chlorophylle-a et de la péridinine chez le dinoflagellé Lingulodinium polyedrum

Les dinoflagellés jouent un rôle très important dans l’écologie des océans en y réalisant une grande partie de la production primaire, en formant une association symbiotique avec les coraux et en ayant la capacité de produire des fleurs d’algues potentiellement toxiques pour les communautés côtières humaines et animales. Malgré tout, la biologie moléculaire des dinoflagellés n’a que très peu été étudiée dans les dernières années, les connaissances de processus de base comme la régulation de la transcription y étant fortement limitées. Une tentative pour élucider ce mécanisme a été réalisée chez les dinoflagellés photosynthétiques Lingulodinium polyedrum et Amphidinium carterae. Une expérience d’induction de la transcription du gène de la Peridinin chlorophyll-a binding protein, le complexe majeur de collecte de lumière, a été réalisée par une baisse de l’intensité lumineuse et a montré une faible augmentation (moins de 2 fois) du transcrit à court et long terme. Des expériences de simple-hybride et de retard sur gel (EMSA) ont été faits pour identifier de potentielles interactions protéine-ADN dans la région intergénique du gène PCP organisé en tandem. Ces essais ont été infructueux pour identifier de telles protéines. Une analyse du transcriptome de L. polyedrum a été effectuée, montrant une importante sous-représentation de domaines de liaison à l’ADN classique (comme Heat-shock factor, bZIP ou Myb) et une surreprésentation du domaine d’origine bactérienne Cold shock en comparaison avec d’autres eucaryotes unicellulaires. Ce travail suggère que les mécanismes de régulation transcriptionnelle des dinoflagellés pourraient différer substantiellement de ceux des autres eucaryotes.

Regulation of gene expression in the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedrum

Les dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires que l’on retrouve autant en eau douce qu’en milieu marin. Ils sont particulièrement connus pour causer des fleurs d’algues toxiques nommées ‘marée-rouge’, ainsi que pour leur symbiose avec les coraux et pour leur importante contribution à la fixation du carbone dans les océans. Au point de vue moléculaire, ils sont aussi connus pour leur caractéristiques nucléaires uniques, car on retrouve généralement une quantité immense d’ADN dans leurs chromosomes et ceux-ci sont empaquetés et condensés sous une forme cristalline liquide au lieu de nucléosomes. Les gènes encodés par le noyau sont souvent présents en multiples copies et arrangés en tandem et aucun élément de régulation transcriptionnelle, y compris la boite TATA, n’a encore été observé. L’organisation unique de la chromatine des dinoflagellés suggère que différentes stratégies sont nécessaires pour contrôler l’expression des gènes de ces organismes. Dans cette étude, j’ai abordé ce problème en utilisant le dinoflagellé photosynthétique Lingulodinium polyedrum comme modèle. L. polyedrum est d’un intérêt particulier, car il a plusieurs rythmes circadiens (journalier). À ce jour, toutes les études sur l’expression des gènes lors des changements circadiens ont démontrées une régulation à un niveau traductionnel. Pour mes recherches, j’ai utilisé les approches transcriptomique, protéomique et phosphoprotéomique ainsi que des études biochimiques pour donner un aperçu de la mécanique de la régulation des gènes des dinoflagellés, ceci en mettant l’accent sur l’importance de la phosphorylation du système circadien de L. polyedrum. L’absence des protéines histones et des nucléosomes est une particularité des dinoflagellés. En utilisant la technologie RNA-Seq, j’ai trouvé des séquences complètes encodant des histones et des enzymes modifiant les histones. L polyedrum exprime donc des séquences conservées codantes pour les histones, mais le niveau d’expression protéique est plus faible que les limites de détection par immunodétection de type Western. Les données de séquençage RNA-Seq ont également été utilisées pour générer un transcriptome, qui est une liste des gènes exprimés par L. polyedrum. Une recherche par homologie de séquences a d’abord été effectuée pour classifier les transcrits en diverses catégories (Gene Ontology; GO). Cette analyse a révélé une faible abondance des facteurs de transcription et une surprenante prédominance, parmi ceux-ci, des séquences à domaine Cold Shock. Chez L. polyedrum, plusieurs gènes sont répétés en tandem. Un alignement des séquences obtenues par RNA-Seq avec les copies génomiques de gènes organisés en tandem a été réalisé pour examiner la présence de transcrits polycistroniques, une hypothèse formulée pour expliquer le manque d’élément promoteur dans la région intergénique de la séquence de ces gènes. Cette analyse a également démontré une très haute conservation des séquences codantes des gènes organisés en tandem. Le transcriptome a également été utilisé pour aider à l’identification de protéines après leur séquençage par spectrométrie de masse, et une fraction enrichie en phosphoprotéines a été déterminée comme particulièrement bien adapté aux approches d’analyse à haut débit. La comparaison des phosphoprotéomes provenant de deux périodes différentes de la journée a révélée qu’une grande partie des protéines pour lesquelles l’état de phosphorylation varie avec le temps est reliées aux catégories de liaison à l’ARN et de la traduction. Le transcriptome a aussi été utilisé pour définir le spectre des kinases présentes chez L. polyedrum, qui a ensuite été utilisé pour classifier les différents peptides phosphorylés qui sont potentiellement les cibles de ces kinases. Plusieurs peptides identifiés comme étant phosphorylés par la Casein Kinase 2 (CK2), une kinase connue pour être impliquée dans l’horloge circadienne des eucaryotes, proviennent de diverses protéines de liaison à l’ARN. Pour évaluer la possibilité que quelques-unes des multiples protéines à domaine Cold Shock identifiées dans le transcriptome puissent moduler l’expression des gènes de L. polyedrum, tel qu’observé chez plusieurs autres systèmes procaryotiques et eucaryotiques, la réponse des cellules à des températures froides a été examinée. Les températures froides ont permis d’induire rapidement un enkystement, condition dans laquelle ces cellules deviennent métaboliquement inactives afin de résister aux conditions environnementales défavorables. Les changements dans le profil des phosphoprotéines seraient le facteur majeur causant la formation de kystes. Les phosphosites prédits pour être phosphorylés par la CK2 sont la classe la plus fortement réduite dans les kystes, une découverte intéressante, car le rythme de la bioluminescence confirme que l’horloge a été arrêtée dans le kyste.

Present status of coral erosion in Lakshadweep with special reference to Minicoy

Coral Reefs are marine, biogenic, wave resistant carbonate structures, formed of the skeletal remains of hermatypic, or reef building organisms. The main reef builders are calcifying Rhodophytes, molluscs, sponges, polychaetes and Cnidarians. Among them, scleractinian corals and hydrocorallians are by far the most important contributors to the formation of reefs. Coral reefs cover approximately 600 thousand square kilometers of the earth's surface (Crossland fl a_1., 1991) which is about 2x106 square kilometres of tropical oceans.

Cantar en el cor de la universitat

L’objectiu d’aquesta comunicació és donar a conèixer un instrument comú que la universitat posa a disposició de la comunitat educativa per poder formar part de la vida cultural i participativa d’aquesta a través de la veu, la música, els concerts, els intercanvis i totes les activitats que se’n desprenen. També explicar com aquesta eina coral ha transformat certes pràctiques i certes relacions entre el professorat, PAS, estudiants i post graduats. Per finalitzar, exposar el fet de que com activitat complementaria pot esdevenir i ha esdevingut una porta oberta, una targeta de visita, una referència puntual de la universitat al seu entorn més immediat (Girona ciutat i comarques) i al seu entorn més llunyà (altres universitats catalanes, espanyoles, d’Europa i d’arreu del món. En aquesta comunicació s’exposaran els resultats d’una recerca descriptiva amb l’objectiu bàsic de conèixer, recollir, quantificar i analitzar tota una sèrie de dades a l’entorn de les corals universitàries de la Xarxa Lluís Vives per poder descriure, reflexionar, elaborar conclusions i, si cal, prendre decisions i corregir estratègies vers posteriors accions a planificar

El cant coral infantil i juvenil educa en valors, hàbits i competències

This doctoral thesis is the result of the experience, continuous practice and day to day work as head of infant and youth choirs that the candidate has developed for over more than thirty years. The motivation, the concerns and the questions formulated with regards to choral singing, have underpinned this research. The thesis has focused on the learning of values, habits and competences in order to demonstrate that singing in an infant or youth choir is educational and goes far beyond the mere act of singing in a choir. We can therefore state that education is continuous, it never comes to an end and, furthermore, it unfolds in divergent ways. In summary to show that singing in an infant or youth choir is educational in the widest possible sense.

Marine04 marine radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP

New radiocarbon calibration curves, IntCal04 and Marine04, have been constructed and internationally ratified to replace the terrestrial and marine components of IntCal98. The new calibration data sets extend an additional 2000 yr, from 0-26 cal kyr BP (Before Present, 0 cal. BP = AD 1950), and provide much higher resolution, greater precision, and more detailed structure than IntCal98. For the Marine04 curve, dendrochronologically-dated tree-ring samples, converted with a box diffusion model to marine mixed-layer ages, cover the period from 0-10.5 call kyr BR Beyond 10.5 cal kyr BP, high-resolution marine data become available from foraminifera in varved sediments and U/Th-dated corals. The marine records are corrected with site-specific C-14 reservoir age information to provide a single global marine mixed-layer calibration from 10.5-26.0 cal kyr BR A substantial enhancement relative to IntCal98 is the introduction of a random walk model, which takes into account the uncertainty in both the calendar age and the C-14 age to calculate the underlying calibration curve (Buck and Blackwell, this issue). The marine data sets and calibration curve for marine samples from the surface mixed layer (Marine04) are discussed here. The tree-ring data sets, sources of uncertainty, and regional offsets are presented in detail in a companion paper by Reimer et al. (this issue).

IntCal04 terrestrial radiocarbon age calibration, 0-26 cal kyr BP

A new calibration curve for the conversion of radiocarbon ages to calibrated (cal) ages has been constructed and internationally ratified to replace ImCal98, which extended from 0-24 cal kyr BP (Before Present, 0 cal BP = AD 1950). The new calibration data set for terrestrial samples extends from 0-26 cal kyr BP, but with much higher resolution beyond 11.4 cal kyr BP than ImCal98. Dendrochronologically-dated tree-ring samples cover the period from 0-12.4 cal kyr BP. Beyond the end of the tree rings, data from marine records (corals and foraminifera) are converted to the atmospheric equivalent with a site-specific marine reservoir correction to provide terrestrial calibration from 12.4-26.0 cal kyr BP. A substantial enhancement relative to ImCal98 is the introduction of a coherent statistical approach based on a random walk model, which takes into account the uncertainty in both the calendar age and the C-14 age to calculate the underlying calibration curve (Buck and Blackwell, this issue). The tree-ring data sets, sources of uncertainty, and regional offsets are discussed here. The marine data sets and calibration curve for marine samples from the surface mixed layer (Marine 04) are discussed in brief, but details are presented in Hughen et al. (this issue a). We do not make a recommendation for calibration beyond 26 cal kyr BP at this time; however, potential calibration data sets are compared in another paper (van der Plicht et al., this issue).

Record of natural and anthropogenic changes in reef environments (Barbados West Indies) using laser ablation ICP-MS and sclerochronology on coral cores

Coral growth rate can be affected by environmental parameters such as seawater temperature, depth, and light intensity. The natural reef environment is also disturbed by human influences such as anthropogenic pollutants, which in Barbados are released close to the reefs. Here we describe a relatively new method of assessing the history of pollution and explain how these effects have influenced the coral communities off the west coast of Barbados. We evaluate the relative impact of both anthropogenic pollutants and natural stresses. Sclerochronology documents framework and skeletal growth rate and records pollution history (recorded as reduced growth) for a suite of sampled Montastraea annularis coral cores. X-radiography shows annual growth band patterns of the corals extending back over several decades and indicates significantly lower growth rate in polluted sites. Results using laser-ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) on the whole sample (aragonite, organic matter, trapped particulate matter, etc.), have shown contrasting concentrations of the trace elements (Cu, Sn, Zn, and Pb) between corals at different locations and within a single coral. Deepwater corals 7 km apart, record different levels of Pb and Sn, suggesting that a current transported the metal pollution in the water. In addition, the 1995 hurricanes are associated with anomalous values for Sn and Cu from most sites. These are believed to result from dispersion of nearshore polluted water. We compared the concentrations of trace elements in the coral growth of particular years to those in the relevant contemporaneous seawater. Mean values for the concentration factor in the coral, relative to the water, ranged from 10 for Cu and Ni to 2.4 and 0.7 for Cd and Zn, respectively. Although the uncertainties are large (60-80%), the coral record enabled us to demonstrate the possibility of calculating a history of seawater pollution for these elements from the 1940s to 1997. Our values were much higher than those obtained from analysis of carefully cleaned coral aragonite; they demonstrate the incorporation of more contamination including that from particulate material as well as dissolved metals.

Mesozoic climates: General circulation models and the rock record

General circulation models (GCMs) use the laws of physics and an understanding of past geography to simulate climatic responses. They are objective in character. However, they tend to require powerful computers to handle vast numbers of calculations. Nevertheless, it is now possible to compare results from different GCMs for a range of times and over a wide range of parameterisations for the past, present and future (e.g. in terms of predictions of surface air temperature, surface moisture, precipitation, etc.). GCMs are currently producing simulated climate predictions for the Mesozoic, which compare favourably with the distributions of climatically sensitive facies (e.g. coals, evaporites and palaeosols). They can be used effectively in the prediction of oceanic upwelling sites and the distribution of petroleum source rocks and phosphorites. Models also produce evaluations of other parameters that do not leave a geological record (e.g. cloud cover, snow cover) and equivocal phenomena such as storminess. Parameterisation of sub-grid scale processes is the main weakness in GCMs (e.g. land surfaces, convection, cloud behaviour) and model output for continental interiors is still too cold in winter by comparison with palaeontological data. The sedimentary and palaeontological record provides an important way that GCMs may themselves be evaluated and this is important because the same GCMs are being used currently to predict possible changes in future climate. The Mesozoic Earth was, by comparison with the present, an alien world, as we illustrate here by reference to late Triassic, late Jurassic and late Cretaceous simulations. Dense forests grew close to both poles but experienced months-long daylight in warm summers and months-long darkness in cold snowy winters. Ocean depths were warm (8 degrees C or more to the ocean floor) and reefs, with corals, grew 10 degrees of latitude further north and south than at the present time. The whole Earth was warmer than now by 6 degrees C or more, giving more atmospheric humidity and a greatly enhanced hydrological cycle. Much of the rainfall was predominantly convective in character, often focused over the oceans and leaving major desert expanses on the continental areas. Polar ice sheets are unlikely to have been present because of the high summer temperatures achieved. The model indicates extensive sea ice in the nearly enclosed Arctic seaway through a large portion of the year during the late Cretaceous, and the possibility of sea ice in adjacent parts of the Midwest Seaway over North America. The Triassic world was a predominantly warm world, the model output for evaporation and precipitation conforming well with the known distributions of evaporites, calcretes and other climatically sensitive facies for that time. The message from the geological record is clear. Through the Phanerozoic, Earth's climate has changed significantly, both on a variety of time scales and over a range of climatic states, usually baldly referred to as "greenhouse" and "icehouse", although these terms disguise more subtle states between these extremes. Any notion that the climate can remain constant for the convenience of one species of anthropoid is a delusion (although the recent rate of climatic change is exceptional). (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Computer modelling and estimation of recruitment patterns of non-branching coral colonies at three sites in Wakatobi Marine Park, S.E. Sulawesi, Indonesia; implications for coral reef conservation

We have studied growth and estimated recruitment of massive coral colonies at three sites, Kaledupa, Hoga and Sampela, separated by about 1.5 km in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, S.E. Sulawesi, Indonesia. There was significantly higher species richness (P<0.05), coral cover (P<0.05) and rugosity (P<0.01) at Kaledupa than at Sampela. A model for coral reef growth has been developed based on a rational polynomial function, where dx/dt is an index of coral growth with time; W is the variable (for example, coral weight, coral length or coral area), up to the power of n in the numerator and m in the denominator; a1……an and b1…bm are constants. The values for n and m represent the degree of the polynomial, and can relate to the morphology of the coral. The model was used to simulate typical coral growth curves, and tested using published data obtained by weighing coral colonies underwater in reefs on the south-west coast of Curaçao [‘Neth. J. Sea Res. 10 (1976) 285’]. The model proved an accurate fit to the data, and parameters were obtained for a number of coral species. Surface area data was obtained on over 1200 massive corals at three different sites in the Wakatobi Marine National Park, S.E. Sulawesi, Indonesia. The year of an individual's recruitment was calculated from knowledge of the growth rate modified by application of the rational polynomial model. The estimated pattern of recruitment was variable, with little numbers of massive corals settling and growing before 1950 at the heavily used site, Sampela, relative to the reef site with little or no human use, Kaledupa, and the intermediate site, Hoga. There was a significantly greater sedimentation rate at Sampela than at either Kaledupa (P<0.0001) or Hoga (P<0.0005). The relative mean abundance of fish families present at the reef crests at the three sites, determined using digital video photography, did not correlate with sedimentation rates, underwater visibility or lack of large non-branching coral colonies. Radial growth rates of three genera of non-branching corals were significantly lower at Sampela than at Kaledupa or at Hoga, and there was a high correlation (r=0.89) between radial growth rates and underwater visibility. Porites spp. was the most abundant coral over all the sites and at all depths followed by Favites (P<0.04) and Favia spp. (P<0.03). Colony ages of Porites corals were significantly lower at the 5 m reef flat on the Sampela reef than at the same depth on both other reefs (P<0.005). At Sampela, only 2.8% of corals on the 5 m reef crest are of a size to have survived from before 1950. The Scleractinian coral community of Sampela is severely impacted by depositing sediments which can lead to the suffocation of corals, whilst also decreasing light penetration resulting in decreased growth and calcification rates. The net loss of material from Sampela, if not checked, could result in the loss of this protective barrier which would be to the detriment of the sublittoral sand flats and hence the Sampela village.

The sea-level conundrum: case studies from palaeo-archives

Uncertainties in sea-level projections for the 21st century have focused ice sheet modelling efforts to include the processes that are thought to be contributing to the recently observed rapid changes at ice sheet margins. This effort is still in its infancy, however, leaving us unable to make reliable predictions of ice sheet responses to a warming climate if such glacier accelerations were to increase in size and frequency. The geological record, however, has long identified examples of nonlinear ice sheet response to climate forcing (Shackleton NJ, Opdyke ND. 1973. Oxygen isotope and paleomagnetic stratigraphy of equatorial Pacific core V28–239, late Pliocene to latest Pleistocene. Geological Society of America Memoirs145: 449–464; Fairbanks RG. 1989. A 17,000 year glacio-eustatic sea level record: influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep ocean circulation. Nature342: 637–642; Bard E, Hamelin B, Arnold M, Montaggioni L, Cabioch G, Faure G, Rougerie F. 1996. Sea level record from Tahiti corals and the timing of deglacial meltwater discharge. Nature382: 241–244), thus suggesting an alternative strategy for constraining the rate and magnitude of sea-level change that we might expect by the end of this century. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.