Sex Trafficking of Minors in the U.S.: Implications for Policy, Prevention and Research

Context: Information currently available on the trafficking of minors in the U.S. for commercial sexual exploitation includes approximations of the numbers involved, risk factors that increase the likelihood of victimization and methods of recruitment and control. However, specific characteristics about this vulnerable population remain largely unknown. Objective: This article has two distinct purposes. The first is to provide the reader with an overview of available information on minor sex trafficking in the U.S. The second is to present findings and discuss policy, research, and educational implications from secondary data analysis of 115 cases of minor sex trafficking in the U.S. Design: Minor sex trafficking cases were identified through two main venues - a review of U.S. Department of Justice press releases of human trafficking cases and an online search of media reports. Searches covered the time period from October 28, 2000, which coincided with the passage of the VTVPA through October 31, 2009. Cases were included in analysis if the incident involved at least one victim under the age of 18, occurred in the U.S., and at least one perpetrator had been arrested, indicted, or convicted. Results: A total of 115 separate incidents involving at least 153 victims were located. These occurrences involved 215 perpetrators, with the majority of them having been convicted (n = 117, 53.4%), The number of victims involved in a single incident ranged from 1 to 9. Over 90% of victims were female who ranged in age from 5 to 17 years. There were more U.S. minor victims than those from other countries. Victims had been in captivity from less than 6 months to 5 years. Minors most commonly fell into exploitation through some type of false promise indicated (16.3%, n = 25), followed by kidnapping (9.8%, n = 15). Over a fifth of the sample (22.2%, n = 34) were abused through two commercial sex practices, with almost all (94.1%, n = 144) used in prostitution. One of every five victims (24.8%, n = 38) had been advertised on an Internet website. Conclusions: Results of a review of known information about minor sex trafficking and findings from analysis of 115 incidents of the sex trafficking of youth in the U.S. indicate a need for stronger legislation to educate various professional groups, more comprehensive services for victims, stricter laws for pimps and traffickers, and preventive educational interventions beginning at a young age.

Development of micro-electrospray mass spectrometry for ultra high sensitivity and application in the study of drugs of abuse on endogenous \lbrack Met\rbrack $\sp5$-enkephalin release

A micro-electrospray interface was developed specifically for the neurobiological applications described in this dissertation. Incorporation of a unique nano-flow liquid chromatography micro-electrospray "needle" into the micro-electrospray interface (micro-ES/MS) increased the sensitivity of the mass spectrometric assay by $\sim$1000 fold and thus permitted the first analysis of specific neuroactive compounds in brain extracellular fluid collected by in vivo microdialysis (Md).^ Initial in vivo data presented deals with the pharmacodynamics of a novel GABA$\sb{\rm B}$ antagonist and the availability of the compound in its parent (unmetabolized) form to the brain of the anesthetized rat. Next, the first structurally specific endogenous release of (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin was demonstrated in unanesthetized freely-moving animals (release of $\sim$6.5 fmole of (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin into the dialysate by direct neuronal depolarization). The Md/micro-ES/MS system was used to test the acute effects of drugs of abuse on the endogenous release of (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin from the globus pallidus/ventral pallidum brain region in rats. Four drugs known to be abused by man (morphine, cocaine, methamphetamine and diazepam) were tested. Morphine and cocaine both elicited a two-fold or more increase in the release of (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin over vehicle controls. Diazepam elicited a small decrease in (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin levels and methamphetamine showed no significant effect on (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin. These results imply that (Met) $\sp5$-enkephalin may be involved in the reward pathway of certain drugs of abuse. ^

Acute cocaine-related health problems in patients presenting to an urban emergency department in Switzerland: a case series

BACKGROUND Emergency departments may be a useful information source to describe the demographics and clinical characteristics of patients with acute cocaine-related medical problems. We therefore conducted a retrospective analysis of 165 acute, laboratory-confirmed cocaine intoxications admitted to an urban emergency department in Switzerland between January 2007 and March 2011. RESULTS A total of 165 patients with a mean age of 32 years were included. Most patients were male (73%) and unemployed (65%). Only a minority (16%) had abused cocaine alone while 84% of the patients had used at least one additional substance, most commonly ethanol (41%), opioids (38%), or cannabis (36%) as confirmed by their detection in blood samples. The most frequently reported symptoms were chest pain (21%), palpitations (19%), anxiety (36%) and restlessness (36%). Psychiatric symptoms were present in 64%. Hypertension and tachycardia were observed in 53% and 44% of the patients, respectively. Severe poisonings only occurred in patients with multiple substance intoxication (15%). Severe intoxications were non-significantly more frequent with injected drug use compared to nasal, oral, or inhalational drug use. Severe complications included acute myocardial infarction (2 cases), stroke (one case), and seizures (3 cases). Most patients (75%) were discharged home within 24 h after admission. A psychiatric evaluation in the ED was performed in 24% of the patients and 19% were referred to a psychiatric clinic. CONCLUSIONS Patients with acute cocaine intoxication often used cocaine together with ethanol and opioids and presented with sympathomimetic toxicity and/or psychiatric disorders. Severe acute toxicity was more frequent with multiple substance use. Toxicity was typically short-lasting but psychiatric evaluation and referral was often needed.

Childhood sexual victimization: Risk factor for drug use and sexual risk behaviors

The purpose of this dissertation was to survey men in the Harris County Jail (HCJ) to establish a more valid estimate of childhood sexual abuse (CSA) prevalence in a jailed-based population; to assess whether inmates with a history of CSA were at greater risk for use of drugs and alcohol and engaging in high-risk sexual behaviors than those without histories of childhood sexual abuse. ^ The first study determined the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse among incarcerated males in a county jail. In this study, sixty-three percent of the subjects reported having been sexually abused. Sixty-one percent reported abuse pre-puberty and 10% reported abuse post puberty. In pre-puberty abuse the initiation of first abuse occurred at a mean age of 5.6 years (SD 5.096, range: 2–13 years). ^ The second study explored the association between inmates with histories of CSA as a risk factor for sexual risk behaviors. A history of sexual abuse did not appear to be associated with an elevated risk of sexual risk behaviors. ^ The third study explored a history of drug use and a history of CSA among the inmates. A chi-square test showed that the inmates who reported a history of CSA, was significantly greater for the following drugs: Marijuana (02), Crack (03), Heroin/Morphine (.03), Amphetamines/Speed (01), Downers/Barbiturates (.001), Methamphetamine/Crystal Meth (.001), Valium .02), LSD/Acid (.001), and Inhalants (.001), p < .05). Significance was not found in alcohol, tobacco, cocaine, Quaaludes and methadone. ^ The research from this study provides empirical data supporting previous research. The current data shows that incarcerated inmates have a high prevalence of childhood sexual abuse and drug use. Sexual victimization as a child does not appear to be associated with an elevated risk of unsafe sexual behaviors. However, men who used drugs were twice as likely to have engaged in unprotected sex with casual and regular partners, and rarely used condoms with paid sex. Although our study methods do not permit a causal explanation for this association, we believe it is of concern. Finally, data in this study shows that sexually abused children are likely candidates for adult criminal behavior. ^

A global perspective on intimate partner violence during pregnancy: An analysis of twelve developing countries

Violence against women has been recognized as a significant worldwide human rights issue and public health problem. Women of reproductive age may be particularly at risk, and pregnancy may trigger or escalate violence. Using data available from Demographic and Health Surveys on 271,103 women of reproductive age (15-49) from Bolivia, Cameroon, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Haiti, India, Kenya, Nicaragua, Peru, South Africa, and Zambia, this study examined the nature of domestic violence during pregnancy in developing countries, including prevalence, demographic and risk factors, maternal and child health outcomes, perpetrators of violence, help-seeking behavior, and social support. In the majority of countries analyzed, violence during pregnancy consistently occurred at approximately one-third the rate at which domestic violence occurred overall. Younger women and women with more children were particularly at risk. Abuse during pregnancy was significantly associated with history of a terminated pregnancy and under-5 child mortality in most countries, and with neonatal and post-neonatal mortality in most Latin American countries. Women who were abused during pregnancy were most often abused by their current or former husband or boyfriend and most never attempted to seek help. In most countries that examined social support, women abused during pregnancy had significantly less contact with family and friends. Implications for practice and research are discussed. ^

Gender differences in life circumstances, monthly income, risky sexual and drug behaviors among injection drug users in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

This study investigated the gender difference between male and female injection drug users’ (IDUs) life circumstances, income and risky sexual and drug behaviors. The study sample comprised of 318 male and 249 female injection drug users in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. There were gender differences between male and female IDUs in terms of life circumstances and sexual behaviors. There were no differences in the drug behaviors among the two sexes. Women were more likely to be 21-25 years of age, have had more sexual partners in the last 30 days, traded sex for money, and have been sexually abused as a child. On the other hand, the males were more likely to be 26-30 years of age and have never used a condom during sex in the last 30 days. Regardless of the differences in sexual risk behaviors by gender, both male and female injection drug users in Dar es Salaam are at risk of HIV/AIDS, blood borne and other sexually transmitted diseases associated with drug use.^

THE EFFECT OF FAMILY ENVIRONMENT FACTORS IN THE ETIOLOGY OF CHILD ABUSE

Twenty-three abusing couples were compared with a matched group of 23 non-abusing couples in terms of stress levels and family environment factors (cohesion, expressiveness, conflict, independence, achievement orientation, organization, control) which might mediate the response of abuse to stress. Parents who had physically abused their children were found to have significantly greater stress, conflict, and control and a significantly lower level of cohesion, independence, and achievement orientation than non-abusing parents. However, none of the mediating effects of the family environment factors reached the level of significance. ^

Study of rural leadership and implications for community participation and development in the health and family planning programs in Bangladesh

The vast majority of Bangladesh are poor and are unable even to provide for the most basic human needs. These are the landless and marginal farmers of Bangladesh. They constitute 70% of the rural population, which in turn constitute about 90% of the country's population.^ Effective development of Bangladesh would largely mean the development of the landless and marginal farmers. Past efforts of development in this section of the population, including that of the government, have not succeeded. One of the development goals of the government of Bangladesh is to improve the quality of life of the rural population through health and population control measures. Overpopulation, malnutrition and diarrhea are the major impediments to socioeconomic development in Bangladesh.^ The current study was designed to identify whether there is effective opinion leadership among the marginal and landless peasants affecting decisions on acceptance or nonacceptance of family planning methods and oral rehydration therapy (ORT) in the selected rural areas of Bangladesh. The study was conducted in eight randomly selected villages with funding from the Ministry of Health and Family Planning, government of Bangladesh. One hundred twenty-five opinion leaders were interviewed after they were identified by 408 rural couples owning land less than 2 acres and wives' age below 50. The study was conducted in two phases; couples' interview preceded that of the leaders.^ Findings of the study reveal that the opinion leaders influencing adoption of health and family planning among the landless and marginal farmers belong to the same class. Theses opinion leaders own land much less than the rich farmers and the formal leaders in the rural areas. Majority of these of opinion leaders are friends, neighbors and relatives, some are other persons who are businessmen and professionals like doctors, while the rest few are the field workers of health and family planning. Source of influence as a factor contribute most in differentiating use and non-use of family planning and ORT among both couples and leaders. The most frequent sources of influence referred by the couples and the leaders are the field workers of health and family planning, followed by the peer opinion leaders (friends, neighbors, relatives) and spouse.^ The opinion leaders do not differ much from the poor couples on land holding, a strong indicator of economic status, they however differ considerably on social factors such as family planning practice, education, and exposure to mass media.^ The study suggests that future development efforts in Bangladesh have to ensure community participation by the landless and marginal farmers and opinion leaders belonging to their class. ^

Family Reunification among Two Groups of Runaway Adolescents Utilizing Emergency Shelters

Limited research has addressed reunification of runaway youths with their families following an emergency shelter stay; however, recent studies have shown that those who reunify with their families following a shelter stay have more positive outcomes than those relocated to other residences. This study evaluated differences between two samples of runaway youth utilizing youth emergency shelters in New York (n = 155) and Texas (n = 195) and identified factors associated with reunification among these two groups of adolescents. Less than half (43.7%) of the youths were reunited with their families. Among New York runaway youths, those who had lived primarily with someone other than a parent before shelter admission, were physically abused, or neglected were less likely to return home. Among youths admitted to emergency shelter services in Texas, those with longer shelter stays, living primarily with someone other than a parent before shelter admission, or being pregnant or a parent were less likely to reunify. This study provides valuable information concerning family reunification following shelter service use; however, additional research is needed to delineate youth, family, and shelter system factors that distinguish successful from unsuccessful reunification over an extended period of time.

“Dishonourable disobedience” – Why refusal to treat in reproductive healthcare is not conscientious objection

In medicine, the vast majority of conscientious objection (CO) is exercised within the reproductive healthcare field – particularly for abortion and contraception. Current laws and practices in various countries around CO in reproductive healthcare show that it is unworkable and frequently abused, with harmful impacts on women's healthcare and rights. CO in medicine is supposedly analogous to CO in the military, but in fact the two have little in common. This paper argues that CO in reproductive health is not actually Conscientious Objection, but Dishonourable Disobedience (DD) to laws and ethical codes. Healthcare professionals who exercise CO are using their position of trust and authority to impose their personal beliefs on patients, who are completely dependent on them for essential healthcare. Health systems and institutions that prohibit staff from providing abortion or contraception services are being discriminatory by systematically denying healthcare services to a vulnerable population and disregarding conscience rights for abortion providers. CO in reproductive healthcare should be dealt with like any other failure to perform one's professional duty, through enforcement and disciplinary measures. Counteracting institutional CO may require governmental or even international intervention.

Customary land tenure, inheritance rules, and smallholder farmers in Malawi

Based on information derived from six villages in various parts of rural Malawi, this paper examines the interrelationship between smallholder strategies to obtain land on the one hand, and customary land tenure and inheritance rules on the other. The paper revealed that although the majority of land transactions followed customary land tenure systems and inheritance rules, in a good number of cases land transactions deviated from the basic rules. One factor behind such deviation was the unique personal relationships that were developed between original landholders and heirs. Another factor was the seemingly increasing cases of returning wives in patrilineal villages. Still another factor was the intensifying land scarcity that encouraged villagers to adopt strategies to obtain land from any source by any means. On the other hand, there were also some cases in which the same land-scarcity problem induced villagers to countercheck the practice of flexible land transfer to prevent their lineage land from being alienated to non-kin members. These facts suggest that, in a land scarce situation, an individual strategy to obtain land rights from any possible sources by deviating from customary rules may occasionally be in conflict with a lineage strategy to countercheck such tendency.

Comportamentos agressivos no jardim-de-infância

Relatório de estágio apresentado à Escola Superior de Educação de Santarém para obtenção do grau de mestre em Educação Pré-escolar

MULHERES IDEAIS: UMA ANÁLISE DO PROCESSO DE CONSTRUÇÃO E DE MANUTENÇÃO DAS REPRESENTAÇÕES SOCIAIS DAS ESPOSAS DE PASTORES BATISTAS DE CURITIBA, PR.

Entre instituições e atividades ligadas à igreja como reuniões de oração, cultos, ensaios de corais, ministério infantil, casa, filhos, vida conjugal, etc. está presente uma figura ainda não estudada pelas Ciências da Religião, a da esposa do pastor batista. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi o de analisar o processo de construção e de manutenção das representações sociais dessas mulheres. Para isso, no primeiro capítulo identificamos e analisamos as representações de gênero presentes na estrutura e no cotidiano eclesiástico da denominação e seus reflexos na elaboração e na conservação do perfil das esposas de pastores. No segundo capítulo realizamos uma análise do poder e do papel das instituições de formação teológica e ministerial da denominação batista como formas de idealização, de construção e de manutenção das representações sociais das esposas de pastores. Investigamos no terceiro capítulo as formas do trânsito das esposas de pastores entre os espaços públicos e privados - imbricados um no outro, e as formas em que o poder institucional atua nestes lugares. Para este fim, utilizamos o método etnográfico, observando as igrejas batistas selecionadas, aplicando questionários aos membros das igrejas, líderes institucionais e estudantes da Faculdade Teológica Batista do Paraná FTBP e realizando entrevistas semi-estruturadas com os pastores e suas esposas. As teorias das Ciências da Religião e Sociais nos proporcionaram o suporte teórico necessário para o desenvolvimento do texto e para a análise dos dados empíricos. (AU)

MULHERES IDEAIS: UMA ANÁLISE DO PROCESSO DE CONSTRUÇÃO E DE MANUTENÇÃO DAS REPRESENTAÇÕES SOCIAIS DAS ESPOSAS DE PASTORES BATISTAS DE CURITIBA, PR.

Entre instituições e atividades ligadas à igreja como reuniões de oração, cultos, ensaios de corais, ministério infantil, casa, filhos, vida conjugal, etc. está presente uma figura ainda não estudada pelas Ciências da Religião, a da esposa do pastor batista. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi o de analisar o processo de construção e de manutenção das representações sociais dessas mulheres. Para isso, no primeiro capítulo identificamos e analisamos as representações de gênero presentes na estrutura e no cotidiano eclesiástico da denominação e seus reflexos na elaboração e na conservação do perfil das esposas de pastores. No segundo capítulo realizamos uma análise do poder e do papel das instituições de formação teológica e ministerial da denominação batista como formas de idealização, de construção e de manutenção das representações sociais das esposas de pastores. Investigamos no terceiro capítulo as formas do trânsito das esposas de pastores entre os espaços públicos e privados - imbricados um no outro, e as formas em que o poder institucional atua nestes lugares. Para este fim, utilizamos o método etnográfico, observando as igrejas batistas selecionadas, aplicando questionários aos membros das igrejas, líderes institucionais e estudantes da Faculdade Teológica Batista do Paraná FTBP e realizando entrevistas semi-estruturadas com os pastores e suas esposas. As teorias das Ciências da Religião e Sociais nos proporcionaram o suporte teórico necessário para o desenvolvimento do texto e para a análise dos dados empíricos. (AU)

MANDRÁGORAS: MITOS E ASPECTOS DA CULTURA DE ISRAEL A PARTIR DE GÊNESIS 25 A 36

A sexualidade de Lea e Raquel, o útero, as mandrágoras e o corpo de Jacó são fatores que definem o alicerce do nosso texto como espaços de diálogo, mediação e estrutura do cenário. O destaque principal está sob o capítulo 30.14-16 que retrata a memória das mandrágoras. Como plantas místicas elas dominam o campo religioso e como plantas medicinais elas são utilizadas para solucionar problemas biológicos. As instituições e sociedades detentoras de uma ideologia e de leis que regulamentam uma existência apresentam na narrativa, duas irmãs, mas também esposas de um mesmo homem que, manipuladas por essa instituição que minimiza e oprime a mulher, principalmente a estéril, confina-as como simples objeto de sexualidade e mantenedoras da descendência por meio da maternidade. A memória das mandrágoras é sinal de que a prática existente circundava uma religião não monoteísta. Ela existia sociologicamente por meio de sincretismos, força e poderes sócio-culturais e religiosos. Era constituída das memórias de mulheres que manipulavam e dominavam o poder sagrado para controle de suas necessidades. O discurso dessas mulheres, em nossa unidade, prova que o discurso dessa narrativa não se encontra somente no plano individual, mas também se estende a nível comunitário, espaço que as define e lhes concede importância por meio do casamento e dádivas da maternidade como continuidade da descendência. São mulheres que dominaram um espaço na história com suas lutas e vitórias, com atos de amor e de sofrimento, de crenças e poderes numa experiência religiosa dominada pelo masculino que vai além do nosso conhecimento atual. As lutas firmadas na fé e na ideologia dessas mulheres definiram e acentuaram seu papel de protagonistas nas narrativas 9 bíblicas que estudamos no Gênesis. A conservação dessas narrativas, e do espaço teológico da época, definiu espaços, vidas, gerações e tribos que determinaram as gerações prometidas e fecharam um ciclo: o da promessa de Iahweh quanto à descendência desde Abraão. Os mitos e as crenças foram extintos para dar espaço a uma fé monoteísta, mas a experiência religiosa