Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript in the rat vagus nerve: A putative mediator of cholecystokinin-induced satiety

Cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) is widely expressed in the central nervous system. Recent studies have pointed to a role for CART-derived peptides in inhibiting feeding behavior. Although these actions have generally been attributed to hypothalamic CART, it remains to be determined whether additional CART pathways exist that link signals from the gastrointestinal tract to the central control of food intake. In the present study, we have investigated the presence of CART in the rat vagus nerve and nodose ganglion. In the viscerosensory nodose ganglion, half of the neuron profiles expressed CART and its predicted peptide, as determined by in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. CART expression was markedly attenuated after vagotomy, but no modulation was observed after food restriction or high-fat regimes. A large proportion of CART-labeled neuron profiles also expressed cholecystokinin A receptor mRNA. CART-peptide-like immunoreactivity was transported in the vagus nerve and found in a dense fiber plexus in the nucleus tractus solitarii. Studies on CART in the spinal somatosensory system revealed strong immunostaining of the dorsal horn but only a small number of stained cell bodies in dorsal root ganglia. The present results suggest that CART-derived peptides are present in vagal afferent neurons sensitive to cholecystokinin, suggesting that the role of these peptides in feeding may be explained partly by mediating postprandial satiety effects of cholecystokinin.

Contribuição da consulta de enfermagem na adesão ao tratamento do diabetes mellitus na estratégia saúde da família do município de Ribeirão Preto, SP

Trata-se de estudo de intervenção tipo antes e depois, no qual o sujeito é seu próprio controle, fator que permite identificar os efeitos na adesão ao tratamento e controle dos níveis glicêmicos. Teve como objetivo avaliar a contribuição da consulta de enfermagem na adesão ao tratamento do diabetes mellitus tipo 2, em uma Unidade Saúde da Família, de acordo com o \"Protocolo de atendimento as pessoas com diabetes mellitus,\" em Ribeirão Preto, SP. A coleta de dados foi realizada no período de setembro de 2014 a janeiro de 2015. O trabalho foi aprovado pelo Comitê de Ética em Pesquisa da Escola de Enfermagem de Ribeirão Preto, SP, sob Parecer nº 648.970. Participaram 31 pessoas com diabetes mellitus, por meio de três consultas de enfermagem, na unidade de saúde e no domicílio, com intervalo de um mês entre as três consultas de todos os participantes. Foi utilizado um roteiro contendo variáveis sociodemográficos e clínicas e o teste de Medida de Adesão ao Tratamento. Para a análise da adesão, durante e após a intervenção, utilizou-se a estatística descritiva e o teste de Mann- Whitney; para a comparação do antes e após a intervenção, utilizou-se o teste de Wilcoxon; para análise de correlação com as variáveis numéricas, o coeficiente de correlação de Spearman e o teste Q de Cochran, para a comparação dos exames nos momentos anterior, durante e posterior à intervenção. Os resultados mostraram que os participantes tinham entre 33 e 79 anos, sendo 58,1% do sexo feminino; 71% tinham companheiro; renda familiar de 1 a 3 salários-mínimos (83,9%); 80,6% referiram ser profissionalmente inativos (aposentados, pensionistas ou do lar); média de 5,68 anos de estudo e predomínio de menos de 8 anos de estudo (67,7%). Em relação aos valores da pressão arterial sistêmica constatou hipertensão arterial sistêmica grau I em 25,8% das pessoas com diabetes mellitus, 90,3% com índice de massa corporal apresentando excesso de peso, quanto à circunferência abdominal, 32,2% dos homens estavam com valores maiores que 102 cm e 45,2% das mulheres com valores acima de 88 cm. A avaliação dos pés, com uso do monofilamento Semmes-Weinstein de 10g, apresentou 9,7% das pessoas com diabetes mellitus com pé em risco para ulceração e diminuição ou ausência de sensibilidade tátil pressórica protetora dos pés. O tempo de diagnóstico do diabetes mellitus tipo 2 variou entre 1 a 39 anos, predominando as comorbidades hipertensão arterial (83,9%), dislipidemia (58,1%) e obesidade (41,8%). Quanto aos exames laboratoriais, observa-se que, em 64,5% da população estudada, os níveis da glicemia de jejum estavam acima de 100 mg/dL , ocorrendo pequena redução para 61,3% nos casos de pessoas com diabetes mellitus durante a intervenção e se manteve após. No que se refere à glicemia pós-prandial, os casos das pessoas com diabetes mellitus com valores iguais ou acima de 160 mg/dL, antes da intervenção era de 45,2% e durante e após a intervenção caiu para 38,7%. Em contrapartida, aumentou o número de pessoas com diabetes mellitus durante e após a intervenção, com valores da glicemia pós-prandial abaixo de 160 mg/dL, de 54,8% para 61,3%. E, em relação à hemoglobina glicada, foi observado que em 61,3% das pessoas com diabetes mellitus os valores antes da intervenção eram iguais ou acima de 7%. Durante a intervenção, caiu para 19,3% e após a intervenção o número de pessoas com diabetes mellitus, com a hemoglobina glicada igual ou superior a 7%, chegou a 38,7%. Quanto aos valores abaixo de 7%, observou-se aumento de 38,7% antes da intervenção para 80,6 e 61,3% respectivamente, durante e após a intervenção, com diferença estatisticamente significante (p< 0,001). As pessoas com diabetes mellitus desse estudo, apresentaram 83,87% de adesão ao tratamento antes da intervenção, e esses escores subiram para 96,78% após a intervenção, fato corroborado pelo teste de Wilcoxon que mostrou escores estatisticamente significantes (p<0,001), entre antes e após a intervenção. Esse estudo contribui para ressaltar a importância do enfermeiro, enquanto integrante da equipe multiprofissional, seguindo as orientações do \"Protocolo de atendimento ao indivíduo com diabetes\", tanto no atendimento individual quanto em grupo, reorganizando o processo de trabalho, contribuindo para maior adesão ao tratamento e controle dos níveis glicêmicos, ao minimizar a fragmentação e assegurar a continuidade na assistência, por meio de abordagem integral ao diabético

Short-term peaks in glucose promote renal fibrogenesis independently of total glucose exposure

Postprandial hyperglycemia is implicated as a risk factor predisposing to vascular complications. This study was designed to assess recurrent short-term increases in glucose on markers of renal fibrogenesis. Human renal cortical fibroblasts were exposed to fluctuating short-term (2 h) increases to 15 mM D-glucose, three times a day over 72 h, on a background of 5 mM D-glucose. To determine whether observed changes were due to fluctuating osmolality, identical experiments were undertaken with cells exposed to L-glucose. Parallel experiments were performed in cells exposed to 5 mM D-glucose and constant exposure to either 15 or 7.5 mM D-glucose. Fluctuating D-glucose increased extracellular matrix, as measured by proline incorporation ( P < 0.05), collagen IV ( P < 0.005), and fibronectin production ( P < 0.001), in association with increased tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) ( P < 0.05). Sustained exposure to 15 mM D-glucose increased fibronectin ( P < 0.001), in association with increased MMP-2 ( P = 0.01) and MMP-9 activity ( P < 0.05), suggestive of a protective effect on collagen matrix accumulation. Transforming growth factor-beta(1) (TGF-beta(1)) mRNA was increased after short-term (90 min) exposure to 15 mM glucose (P < 0.05) and after 24-h exposure to 7.5 mM ? ( P < 0.05). Normalization of TGF-beta(1) secretion occurred within 48 h of constant exposure to an elevated glucose. Fluctuating L-glucose also induced TGF-beta(1) mRNA and a profibrotic profile, however, to a lesser extent than observed with exposure to fluctuating D-glucose. The results suggest that exposure to fluctuating glucose concentrations increases renal interstitial fibrosis compared with stable elevations in D-glucose. The effects are, in part, due to the inherent osmotic changes.

Degradation, receptor binding, insulin secreting and antihyperglycaemic actions of palmitate-derivatised native and Ala8-substituted GLP-1 analogues

The hormone glucagon-like peptide-1(7-36)amide (GLP-1) is released in response to ingested nutrients and acts to promote glucose-dependent insulin secretion ensuring efficient postprandial glucose homeostasis. Unfortunately, the beneficial actions of GLP-1 which give this hormone many of the desirable properties of an antidiabetic drug are short lived due to degradation by dipeptidylpeptidase IV (DPP IV) and rapid clearance by renal filtration. In this study we have attempted to extend GLP-1 action through the attachment of palmitoyl moieties to the E-amino group in the side chain of the LyS26 residue and to combine this modification with substitutions of the Ala 8 residue, namely Val or amino-butyric acid (Abu). In contrast to native GLP-1, which was rapidly degraded, [Lys(pal) 26]GLP-1, [Abu8,Lys(pal)26]GLP-1 and [Val8,Lys-(pal)26]GLP-1 all exhibited profound stability during 12 h incubations with DPP IV and human plasma. Receptor binding affinity and the ability to increase cyclic AMP in the clonal β-cell line BRIN-BD11 were decreased by 86- to 167-fold and 15- to 62-fold, respectively compared with native GLP-1. However, insulin secretory potency tested using BRIN-BD11 cells was similar, or in the case of [Val8,Lys(pal)26]GLP-1 enhanced. Furthermore, when administered in vivo together with glucose to diabetic (ob/ob) mice, [Lys(pal)26]GLP-1, [Abu8,Lys(pal) 26]GLP-1 and [Val8,Lys(pal) 26]GLP-1 did not demonstrate acute glucose-lowering or insulinotropic activity as observed with native GLP-1. These studies support the potential usefulness of fatty acid linked analogues of GLP-1 but indicate the importance of chain length for peptide kinetics and bioavailability. Copyright © by Walter de Gruyter.

Nutritional management of blood glucose levels

Background and Objectives: Nutritional management of blood glucose levels is a strategic target in the prevention and management of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), applicable across the population. To implement a successful strategy it is essential to understand the impact of dietary modulation on the postprandial rise in blood glucose concentrations. Methods: Using the highest quality data, a systematic and comprehensive literature review was undertaken. Included in this review were the major macronutrients (carbohydrate, pro-tein, fat), micronutrient vitamins and minerals, non-nutrient phytochemicals and additional foods such as low-calorie sweeteners, vinegar and alcohol. Results: The strongest corroboration of efficacy for improving glucose homeostasis was for insoluble and moderately fermentable cereal-based fiber and mono-unsaturated fatty acids as replacement of saturated fat. Postprandial glycaemia was decreased by intake of viscous soluble fiber and the predominant mechanism of action was considered to be by delaying absorption of co-ingested carbohydrates. There was weaker but substantial evidence that certain phytochemical-rich foods were likely to be effective. This may be associated with the su-ggestion that the gut microbiota plays an important role in me-tabolic regulation, which includes provision of phytochemical and other metabolites. Conclusions: Based on the evidence, it is clear that dietary components have significant and clinically relevant effects on blood glucose modulation. This suggests that employing a dietary regimen to attenuate the postprandial rise in blood glucose levels along with previously identified targets (reducing excess body weight and an increase in physical activity) will benefit the health of the population and limit the increasing worldwide incidence of T2D.

Link between increased gut hormones signaling satiety and reduced food reward following gastric bypass surgery for obesity

CONTEXT: Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) surgery is an effective long-term intervention for weight loss maintenance, reducing appetite, and also food reward, via unclear mechanisms. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the role of elevated satiety gut hormones after RYGB, we examined food hedonic-reward responses after their acute post-prandial suppression. DESIGN: These were randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover experimental medicine studies. PATIENTS: Two groups, more than 5 months after RYGB for obesity (n = 7-11), compared with nonobese controls (n = 10), or patients after gastric banding (BAND) surgery (n = 9) participated in the studies. INTERVENTION: Studies were performed after acute administration of the somatostatin analog octreotide or saline. In one study, patients after RYGB, and nonobese controls, performed a behavioral progressive ratio task for chocolate sweets. In another study, patients after RYGB, and controls after BAND surgery, performed a functional magnetic resonance imaging food picture evaluation task. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Octreotide increased both appetitive food reward (breakpoint) in the progressive ratio task (n = 9), and food appeal (n = 9) and reward system blood oxygen level-dependent signal (n = 7) in the functional magnetic resonance imaging task, in the RYGB group, but not in the control groups. RESULTS: Octreotide suppressed postprandial plasma peptide YY, glucagon-like peptide-1, and fibroblast growth factor-19 after RYGB. The reduction in plasma peptide YY with octreotide positively correlated with the increase in brain reward system blood oxygen level-dependent signal in RYGB/BAND subjects, with a similar trend for glucagon-like peptide-1. CONCLUSIONS: Enhanced satiety gut hormone responses after RYGB may be a causative mechanism by which anatomical alterations of the gut in obesity surgery modify behavioral and brain reward responses to food.

Glycemic index role on visceral obesity, subclinical inflammation and associated chronic diseases

Background: It is believed that the glycemic index (GI) may be used as a strategy to prevent and control noncommunicable diseases (NCD). Obesity is a multifactorial condition, a risk factor for development of other NCDs. Among the different types, abdominal obesity is highlighted, which is essential for the diagnosis of metabolic syndrome, and it is related to insulin resistance, dyslipi-demia, hypertension and changes in levels of inflammatory markers. Such indicators are closely related to the development of Type 2 Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Objectives: Discuss the role of GI as a strategy for the prevention and/or treatment of visceral obesity, subclinical inflammation and chronic diseases. Results and discussion: The intake of low GI diets is associated with glycemic decreases, and lower and more consistent postprandial insulin release, avoiding the occurrence of hypoglycemia. Moreover, consumption of a low GI diet has been indicated as beneficial for reducing body weight, total body fat and visceral fat, levels of proinflammatory markers and the occurrence of dyslipidemia and hypertension. The intake of low GI foods should be encouraged in order to prevent and control non-communicable diseases.

Hyperinsulinism, Insulin Resistance and Impaired Fasting Glucose Revealing an Insulin Autoimmune Syndrome

We report a case of a 55-year-old woman who was evaluated for multiple episodes of late postprandial hypoglycaemia. We diagnosed her condition as insulin autoimmune syndrome (Hirata disease) because of a high insulin autoantibody (IAA) titre in association with high levels of plasmatic insulin and hypoglycaemia in a patient with no history of exogenous insulin administration and the exclusion of other causes of late postprandial hypoglycaemia.

An Unexpected Cause of Marked Weight Loss Associated with Vomiting in an Adult Man: Gastric Phytobeozar

Objectives: We present the case of an edentulous 47-year-old farmer referred to our Department of Internal Medicine because of postprandial vomiting, hyporexia, asthenia and weight loss. He ate a mostly vegetarian diet. Materials and methods: An oesophagogastroduodenoscopy revealed the presence of a phytobezoar at the level of the fundus and body of the stomach. Endoscopic fragmentation and removal of the phytobezoar were unsuccessful and the patient had to undergo open surgery. Results: Recovery was uneventful and free of complications. Conclusion: Phytobezoars should be taken into account in the differential diagnosis of unexplained vomiting and weight loss.

Protein quality and distribution determines anabolic signaling, cellular energetics, and body composition

Building and maintaining muscle is critical to the quality of life for adults and elderly. Physical activity and nutrition are important factors for long-term muscle health. In particular, dietary protein – including protein distribution and quality – are under-appreciated determinants of muscle health for adults. The most unequivocal evidence for the benefit of optimal dietary protein at individual meals is derived from studies of weight management. During the catabolic condition of weight loss, higher protein diets attenuate loss of lean tissue and partition weight loss to body fat when compared with commonly recommended high carbohydrate, low protein diets. Muscle protein turnover is a continuous process in which proteins are degraded, and replaced by newly synthesized proteins. Muscle growth occurs when protein synthesis exceeds protein degradation. Regulation of protein synthesis is complex, with multiple signals influencing this process. The mammalian target of rapamycin (mTORC1) pathway has been identified as a particularly important regulator of protein synthesis, via stimulation of translation initiation. Key regulatory points of translation initiation effected by mTORC1 include assembly of the eukaryotic initiation factor 4F (eIF4F) complex and phosphorylation of the 70 kilodalton ribosomal protein S6 kinase (S6K1). Assembly of the eIF4F initiation complex involves phosphorylation of the inhibitory eIF4E binding protein-1 (4E-BP1), which releases the initiation factor eIF4E and allows it to bind with eIF4G. Binding of eIF4E with eIF4G promotes preparation of the mRNA for binding to the 43S pre-initiation complex. Consumption of the amino acid leucine (Leu) is a key factor determining the anabolic response of muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and mTORC1 signaling to a meal. Research from this dissertation demonstrates that the peak activation of MPS following a complete meal is proportional to the Leu content of a meal and its ability to elevate plasma Leu. Leu has also been implicated as an inhibitor of muscle protein degradation (MPD). In particular, there is evidence suggesting that in muscle wasting conditions Leu supplementation attenuates expression of the ubiquitin-proteosome pathway, which is the primary mode of intracellular protein degradation. However, this is untested in healthy, physiological feeding models. Therefore, an experiment was performed to see if feeding isonitrogenous protein sources with different Leu contents to healthy adult rats would differentially impact ubiquitin-proteosome (protein degradation) outcomes; and if these outcomes are related to the meal responses of plasma Leu. Results showed that higher Leu diets were able to attenuate total proteasome content but had no effect on ubiquitin proteins. This research shows that dietary Leu determines postprandial muscle anabolism. In a parallel line of research, the effects of dietary Leu on changes in muscle mass overtime were investigated. Animals consuming higher Leu diets had larger gastrocnemius muscle weights; furthermore, gastrocnemius muscle weights were correlated with postprandial changes in MPS (r=0.471, P<0.01) and plasma Leu (r=0.400, P=0.01). These results show that the effect of Leu on ubiquitin-proteosome pathways is minimal for healthy adult rats consuming adequate diets. Thus, long-term changes in muscle mass observed in adult rats are likely due to the differences in MPS, rather than MPD. Factors determining the duration of Leu-stimulated MPS were further investigated. Despite continued elevations in plasma Leu and associated translation initiation factors (e.g., S6K1 and 4E-BP1), MPS returned to basal levels ~3 hours after a meal. However, administration of additional nutrients in the form of carbohydrate, Leu, or both ~2 hours after a meal was able to extend the elevation of MPS, in a time and dose dependent manner. This effect led to a novel discovery that decreases in translation elongation activity was associated with increases in activity of AMP kinase, a key cellular energy sensor. This research shows that the Leu density of dietary protein determines anabolic signaling, thereby affecting cellular energetics and body composition.

Efeito da suplementação materna com palmitato de retinila sobre a concentração de retinol no colostro em condições de jejum e pós-prandial.

Vitamin A is important in many essential body processes and its deficiency results in serious consequences for human health. Breast milk is the only source of this vitamin for children that are exclusively breastfed. Analysis of vitamin A in mother s milk is important because its concentration is related to maternal vitamin A status and to its ingestion by the mother during pregnancy. The aim of the present study was to assess the effect of maternal supplementation with retynil palmitate on the concentration of colostrum retinol under fasting and postprandial conditions. A total of 149 nursing mothers were recruited at the Januário Cicco Maternity School (Natal, Brazil) and allocated to two groups: Comparison (n = 69) and Test (n = 80). Blood and colostrum (in fasting and postprandial conditions) samples were collected up to 24hs after delivery. Serum retinol and colostrum levels were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. The serum retinol level of 41.6 ± 12.7μg/dL (mean ± standard deviation) indicates adequate biochemical nutritional status. Colostrum retinol level was not influenced by serum retinol levels under any of the conditions established. In the colostrum, the retinol concentration in the unsupplemented test group was 67.3 ± 37.7 μg/dL under fasting and 80.3 ± 35.1 μg/dL under postprandial conditions (p<0.05), showing an increase of 19.3%. In the supplemented test group the values were 102.6 ± 57.3 μg/dL and 133.4 ± 78.3 μg/dL under fasting and postprandial, respectively (p<0.05), representing an increase of 30%. Considering that under fasting conditions most of the vitamin A transported to the milk originates in the retinol binding protein (RBP), the postprandial increase in colostrum retinol suggests a different transport mechanism of retinol to maternal milk from that performed by RBP. This situation becomes more evident under supplementation conditions.

Estudo da utilizaçäo dos glúcidos em dietas para robalo (Dicentrarchus labrax)

Dissertação de mest. em Estudos Marinhos e Costeiros- Ramo de Aquacultura, Unidade de Ciências e Tecnologia dos Recursos Aquáticos, Univ. do Algarve, 1995

Antilipolytic and hypotriglyceridemic effects of dietary Salvia triloba Lf (Lamiaceae) in experimental rats

Purpose: Pancreatic triacylglycerol lipase (PL) is a noteworthy pharmacological target for the management of dyslipidemia, and diabetes and obesity. This study was aimed to evaluate the modulatory effects of Salvia triloba L.f. (Lamiaceae) leaves methanol extract (ME) on a high fat diet (HFD)-induced hypertriglyceridemia in rats, with complementary in vitro evaluation of sage PL-inhibitory potential. Methods: Pre-induction of HFD hypertriglyceridemia sage leaves ME (750 mg/kg) was orally supplemented (via gastric intubation) to overnight fasting rats (n = 5). Potential plant modulation of PL was also quantified in vitro by a colorimetric assay (n = 3). For comparison, the effect of Orlistat was similarly evaluated as reference standard. Results: Compared to Orlistat, supplementation of S. triloba at a dose of 750 mg/kg b.wt significantly reversed the HFD-induced postprandial hypertriglyceridemia in experimental overnight fasting rats (p < 0.001 vs. HFD rats). Dietary sage caused 66.4 % reduction in plasma triglycerides. Compared to Orlistat which exerted antilipolytic activity, with half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.114 ± 0.004 μg/mL), sage inhibited PL activity in vitro in a dose-dependent manner IC50 of 100.80 ± 9.07 μg/mL) Conclusion: Sage has dual hypotriglyceridemic and antilipolytic properties which indicate that it can potentially be used to suppress body weight gain.

Sensibilidad a la insulina mediante la prueba de tolerancia oral a la glucosa en adultos mayores en el cantón Cuenca, en el año 2015

INTRODUCCIÓN: Si se valora a tiempo la Sensibilidad a la insulina, se evitara padecer diabetes tipo 2; en los adultos mayores hay cambios como el aumento de tejido adiposo y sarcopenia, relacionados con disminución de la sensibilidad a la insulina. OBJETIVO: Determinar la sensibilidad a la insulina mediante la prueba de tolerancia oral a la glucosa en la población adulta mayor del cantón Cuenca, en el año 2015. METODOLOGÍA: Estudio descriptivo en 120 adultos mayores del cantón Cuenca; 60 casos con síndrome metabólico según el criterio ATP III y 60 casos sin síndrome metabólico. Se trata de una muestra no probabilística por conveniencia debido al costo de las pruebas de laboratorio. Se tomaron dos muestras de sangre una en ayunas y otra postprandial y se dosifico glucosa e insulina. Los datos fueron analizados en SPSS 22, Excel empleando frecuencias, porcentajes, medidas de tendencia central como mediana, promedio, medidas de dispersión, desvío stándar. RESULTADOS: El 39,2 % de adultos mayores presentó insulinemia postprandial alterada. Según el método HOMA-IR el 42 % presenta baja sensibilidad a la insulina y según el método QUICKI el 91,7 % presenta sensibilidad disminuida a la insulina. La baja sensibilidad a la insulina según género, edad y estado civil no fue significativa; en cambio con el IMC elevado se tiene más probabilidad de padecer insulinorresistencia (p=0,03) .Siendo más significativo los pacientes con síndrome metabólico aumenta dos veces la probabilidad de padecer insulinorresistencia (p=0.02, OR 2.3 IC 95% 1.09 – 4.85)

Physiological and morphological responses to feeding in broad-nosed caiman (Caiman latirostris)

Broad nosed caiman are ectotherm sauropsids that naturally experience long fasting intervals. We have studied the postprandial responses by measuring oxygen consumption using respirometry, the size changes of the duodenum, the distal small intestine, and the liver, using repeated non-invasive ultrasonography, and by investigating structural changes on the level of tissues and cells by using light- and electron microscopy. The caimans showed the same rapid and reversible changes of organ size and identical histological features, down to the ultrastructure level, as previously described for other ectothermic sauropsids. We found a configuration change of the mucosa epithelium from pseudostratified during fasting to single layered during digestion, in association with hypertrophy of enterocytes by loading them with lipid droplets. Similar patterns were also found for the hepatocytes of the liver. By placing the results of our study in comparative relationship and by utilizing the phylogenetic bracket of crocodiles, birds and squamates, we suggest that the observed features are plesiomorphic characters of sauropsids. By extending the comparison to anurans, we suggest that morphological and physiological adjustments to feeding and fasting described here may have been a character of early tetrapods. In conclusion, we suggest that the ability to tolerate long fasting intervals and then swallow a single large meal as described for many sit-an-wait foraging sauropsids is a functional feature that was already present in ancestral tetrapods.