Formal derivation of finite state machines for class testing

Previous work on generating state machines for the purpose of class testing has not been formally based. There has also been work on deriving state machines from formal specifications for testing non-object-oriented software. We build on this work by presenting a method for deriving a state machine for testing purposes from a formal specification of the class under test. We also show how the resulting state machine can be used as the basis for a test suite developed and executed using an existing framework for class testing. To derive the state machine, we identify the states and possible interactions of the operations of the class under test. The Test Template Framework is used to formally derive the states from the Object-Z specification of the class under test. The transitions of the finite state machine are calculated from the derived states and the class's operations. The formally derived finite state machine is transformed to a ClassBench testgraph, which is used as input to the ClassBench framework to test a C++ implementation of the class. The method is illustrated using a simple bounded queue example.

Central projections of Drosophila sensory neurons in the transition from embryo to larva

Sensory axons of different sensory modalities project into typical domains within insect ganglia. Tactile and gustatory axons project into a ventral layer of neuropil and proprioceptive afferents, including chordotonal axone, into an intermediate or dorsal layer. Here, we describe the central projections of sensory neurons in the first instar Drosophila larva, relating them to the projection of the same sensory afferents in the embryo and to sensory afferents of similar type in other insects. Several neurons show marked morphologic changes in their axon terminals in the transition between the embryo and larva. During a short morphogenetic period late in embryogenesis, the axon terminals of the dorsal bipolar dendrite stretch receptor change their shape and their distribution within the neuromere. In the larva, external sense organ neurons (es) project their axons into a ventral layer of neuropil. Chordotonal sensory neurons (ch) project into a slightly more dorsal region that is comparable to their projection in adults. The multiple dendrite (md) neurons show two distinctive classes of projection. One group of md neurons projects into the ventral-most neuropil region, the same region into which es neurons project. Members of this group are related by lineage to es neurons or share a requirement for expression of the same proneural gene during development. Other md neurons project into a more dorsal region. Sensory receptors projecting into dorsal neuropil possibly provide proprioceptive feedback from the periphery to central motorneurons and are candidates for future genetic and cellular analysis of simple neural circuitry. J. Comp. Neurol. 425:34-44, 2000. (C) 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

ICT AND PRODUCTIVITY IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES: NEW FIRM-LEVEL EVIDENCE FROM BRAZIL AND INDIA

This paper uses a unique new data set on manufacturing firms in Brazil and India to estimate production functions, augmented by information and communications technology (ICT). We find a strong positive association between ICT capital and productivity in both countries that is robust to several different specification tests. The paper also breaks new ground when using the Indian data to investigate the effect of the institutional and policy environment on ICT capital investment and productivity. We find that poorer infrastructure quality and labor market policy are associated with lower levels of ICT adoption, while poorer infrastructure is also associated with lower returns to investment.

Assessing the ex ante economic impacts of transportation infrastructure policies in Brazil

This paper uses a fully operational inter-regional computable general equilibrium (CGE) model implemented for the Brazilian economy, based on previous work by Haddad and Hewings, in order to assess the likely economic effects of road transportation policy changes in Brazil. Among the features embedded in this framework, modelling of external scale economies and transportation costs provides an innovative way of dealing explicitly with theoretical issues related to integrated regional systems. The model is calibrated for 109 regions. The explicit modelling of transportation costs built into the inter-regional CGE model, based on origin-destination flows, which takes into account the spatial structure of the Brazilian economy, creates the capability of integrating the inter-regional CGE model with a geo-coded transportation network model enhancing the potential of the framework in understanding the role of infrastructure on regional development. The transportation model used is the so-called Highway Development and Management, developed by the World Bank, implemented using the software TransCAD. Further extensions of the current model specification for integrating other features of transport planning in a continental industrialising country like Brazil are discussed, with the goal of building a bridge between conventional transport planning practices and the innovative use of CGE models. In order to illustrate the analytical power of the integrated system, the authors present a set of simulations, which evaluate the ex ante economic impacts of physical/qualitative changes in the Brazilian road network (for example, a highway improvement), in accordance with recent policy developments in Brazil. Rather than providing a critical evaluation of this debate, they intend to emphasise the likely structural impacts of such policies. They expect that the results will reinforce the need to better specifying spatial interactions in inter-regional CGE models.

The Australian Universities Teaching Committee project in 'Learning Outcomes and Curriculum Development in Psychology'

The Australian Universities Teaching Committee (AUTC) funds projects intended to improve the quality of teaching and learning in specific disciplinary areas. The project brief for 'Learning Outcomes and Curriculum Development in Psychology' for 2004/2005 was to 'produce an evaluative overview of courses ... with a focus on the specification and assessment of learning outcomes and ... identify strategic directions for universities to enhance teaching and learning'. This project was awarded to a consortium from The University of Queensland, University of Tasmania, and Southern Cross University. The starting point for this project is an analysis of the scientist-practitioner model and its role in curriculum design, a review of current challenges at a conceptual level, and consideration of the implications of recent changes to universities relating to such things as intemationalisation of programs and technological advances. The project will seek to bring together stakeholders from around the country in order to survey the widest possible range of perspectives on the project brief requirements. It is hoped also to establish mechanisms for fiiture scholarly discussion of these issues, including the establishment of an Australian Society for the Teaching of Psychology and an annual conference.

Insights into the organization of dorsal spinal cord pathways from an evolutionarily conserved raldh2 intronic enhancer

Comparative studies of the tetrapod raldh2 (aldh1a2) gene, which encodes a retinoic acid (RA) synthesis enzyme, have led to the identification of a dorsal spinal cord enhancer. Enhancer activity is directed dorsally to the roof plate and dorsal-most (dl1) interneurons through predicted Tcf- and Cdx-homeodomain binding sites and is repressed ventrally via predicted Tgif homeobox and ventral Lim-homeodomain binding sites. Raldh2 and Math1/Cath1 expression in mouse and chicken highlights a novel, transient, endogenous Raldh2 expression domain in dl1 interneurons, which give rise to ascending circuits and intraspinal commissural interneurons, suggesting roles for RA in the ontogeny of spinocerebellar and intraspinal proprioceptive circuits. Consistent with expression of raldh2 in the dorsal interneurons of tetrapods, we also found that raldh2 is expressed in dorsal interneurons throughout the agnathan spinal cord, suggesting ancestral roles for RA signaling in the ontogenesis of intraspinal proprioception.

Refining specifications to logic programs

The refinement calculus provides a framework for the stepwise development of imperative programs from specifications. In this paper we study a refinement calculus for deriving logic programs. Dealing with logic programs rather than imperative programs has the dual advantages that, due to the expressive power of logic programs, the final program is closer to the original specification, and each refinement step can achieve more. Together these reduce the overall number of derivation steps. We present a logic programming language extended with specification constructs (including general predicates, assertions, and types and invariants) to form a wide-spectrum language. General predicates allow non-executable properties to be included in specifications. Assertions, types and invariants make assumptions about the intended inputs of a procedure explicit, and can be used during refinement to optimize the constructed logic program. We provide a semantics for the extended logic programming language and derive a set of refinement laws. Finally we apply these to an example derivation.

From EEG to BOLD: Brain mapping and estimating transfer functions in simultaneous EEG-fMRI acquisitions

Simultaneous acquisition of electroencephalography (EEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) aims to disentangle the description of brain processes by exploiting the advantages of each technique. Most studies in this field focus on exploring the relationships between fMRI signals and the power spectrum at some specific frequency bands (alpha, beta, etc.). On the other hand, brain mapping of EEG signals (e.g., interictal spikes in epileptic patients) usually assumes an haemodynamic response function for a parametric analysis applying the GLM, as a rough approximation. The integration of the information provided by the high spatial resolution of MR images and the high temporal resolution of EEG may be improved by referencing them by transfer functions, which allows the identification of neural driven areas without strong assumptions about haemodynamic response shapes or brain haemodynamic`s homogeneity. The difference on sampling rate is the first obstacle for a full integration of EEG and fMRI information. Moreover, a parametric specification of a function representing the commonalities of both signals is not established. In this study, we introduce a new data-driven method for estimating the transfer function from EEG signal to fMRI signal at EEG sampling rate. This approach avoids EEG subsampling to fMRI time resolution and naturally provides a test for EEG predictive power over BOLD signal fluctuations, in a well-established statistical framework. We illustrate this concept in resting state (eyes closed) and visual simultaneous fMRI-EEG experiments. The results point out that it is possible to predict the BOLD fluctuations in occipital cortex by using EEG measurements. (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Genetic basis of the formation and identity of type I and type II neurons in Drosophila embryos

The embryonic peripheral nervous system of Drosophila contains two main types of sensory neurons: type I neurons, which innervate external sense organs and chordotonal organs, and type II multidendritic neurons, Here, we analyse the origin of the difference between type I and type II in the case of the neurons that depend on the proneural genes of the achaete-scute complex (ASC), We show that, in Notch(-) embryos, the type I neurons are missing while type nr neurons are produced in excess, indicating that the type I/type II choice relies on Notch-mediated cell communication, In contrast, both type I and type II neurons are absent in numb(-) embryos and after ubiquitous expression of tramtrack, indicating that the activity of numb and the absence of tramtrack are required to produce both external sense organ and multidendritic neural fates, The analysis of string(-) embryos reveals that when the precursors are unable to divide they differentiate mostly into type II neurons, indicating that the type II is the default neuronal fate, We also report a new mutant phenotype where the ASC-dependent neurons are converted into-type II neurons, providing evidence for the existence of one or more genes required for maintaining the alternative (type I) fate, Our results suggest that the same mechanism of type I/type II specification may operate at a late step of the ASC-dependent lineages, when multidendritic neurons arise as siblings of the external sense organ neurons and, at an early step, when other multidendritic neurons precursors arise as siblings of external sense organ precursors.

In vitro fertilization, embryo development, and cell lineage segregation after pre- and/or postnatal exposure of female mice to ambient fine particulate matter

Objective: To evaluate effects of pre- and/or postnatal exposure to ambient fine particulate matter on fertilization, embryo development, and cell lineage segregation in preimplantation blastocysts using the IVF mouse model. Design: Animal model. Setting: Academic institution. Animal(S): Six-week-old, superovulated mice. Intervention(s): Pre- and postnatal exposure to filtered air (FA-FA), filtered-ambient air (FA-AA), or ambient air (AA-AA) in exposure chambers 24 hours a day for 9 weeks. Main Outcome Measure(S): Gestation length, litter size, sex ratio, ovarian response to superovulation, fertilization rate, embryo development, blastocyst and hatching rates, total cell count, and proportion of cell allocation to inner-cell mass (ICM) and trophectoderm (TE). Result(S): Gestation length, litter size and birth weight, live-birth index, and sex ratio were similar among exposure groups. Ovarian response was not affected by the exposure protocol. A multivariate effect for pre- and/or postnatal exposure to ambient fine particulate matter on IVF, embryo development, and blastocyst differential staining was found. Cell counts in ICM and ICM/TE ratios in blastocysts produced in the FA-FA protocol were significantly higher than in blastocysts produced in the FA-AA and AA-AA protocols. No difference in total cell count was observed among groups. Conclusion(S): Our study suggests that exposure to ambient fine particulate matter may negatively affect female reproductive health by disrupting the lineage specification at the blastocyst stage without interfering in early development of the mouse embryo. (Fertil Steril (R) 2009;92:1725-35. (C) 2009 by American Society for Reproductive Medicine.)

Proving Temporal Properties of Z Specifications Using Abstraction

This paper presents a systematic approach to proving temporal properties of arbitrary Z specifications. The approach involves (i) transforming the Z specification to an abstract temporal structure (or state transition system), (ii) applying a model checker to the temporal structure, (iii) determining whether the temporal structure is too abstract based on the model checking result and (iv) refining the temporal structure where necessary. The approach is based on existing work from the model checking literature, adapting it to Z.

Evaluation of the physical and chemical properties of two commercial and three experimental root-end filling materials

Objective. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pH, calcium release, setting time, and solubility of two commercially available mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) cements (white MTA Angelus and MTA Bio), and of three experimental cements (light-cured MTA, Portland cement with 20% bismuth oxide and 5% calcium sulfate, and an epoxy resin-based cement). Study design. For evaluation of pH and calcium ion release, polyethylene tubes with 1.0 mm internal diameter and 10.0 mm length were filled with the cements and immediately immersed in flasks containing 10 mL deionized water. After 3, 24, 72, and 168 hours, the tubes were removed and the water from the previous container was measured for its pH and calcium content with a pH meter and an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. For analysis of the setting time, Gilmore needles weighing 100 g and 456.5 g were used, in accordance with the American Society for Testing and Materials specification no. C266-03. Solubility of each cement was also tested. Results. All the cements were alkaline and released calcium ions, with a declining trend over time. After 3 hours, Portland cement + bismuth oxide and MTA Bio had the highest pH and light-cured MTA the lowest. After 1 week, MTA Bio had the highest pH and light-cured MTA and epoxy resin-based cement the lowest. Regarding calcium ion release, after 3 hours, Portland cement + bismuth oxide showed the highest release. After 1 week, MTA Bio had the highest. Epoxy resin-based cement and light-cured MTA had the lowest calcium release in all evaluation periods. Regarding setting times, white MTA Angelus and MTA Bio had the shortest, Portland cement + bismuth oxide had an intermediate setting time, and the epoxy resin-based cement had the longest. The materials that showed the lowest solubility values were the epoxy resin-based cement, Portland cement + bismuth oxide, and light-cured MTA. The highest solubility values were presented in white MTA Angelus and MTA Bio. Conclusions. The white MTA Angelus and MTA Bio had the shortest setting times, higher pH and calcium ion release, and the highest solubility. In contrast, the epoxy resin-based cement and light-cured MTA showed lower values of solubility, pH, and calcium ion release. (Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2010; 110: 250-256)

Influence of Calcium Hydroxide Association on the Physical Properties of AH Plus

Introduction: This study evaluated in vitro the radiopacity, setting time, flow, film thickness, solubility, and dimensional changes of AH Plus sealer pure (Dentsply De Trey Gmbh, Konstanz, Germany) and containing 5% and 10% of calcium hydroxide. Methods: The study was performed according to the requirements of the ISO 6876:2001 standard and the American National Standards Institute/American Dental Association (ANSI/ADA)`s Specification No. 57. The following tests were performed: setting time, flow, film thickness, dimensional stability, radiopacity, and solubility. Data were analyzed statistically by analysis of variance and the Tukey tests with a significance level of 5%. Results: The addition of 5% or 10% calcium hydroxide to AH Plus sealer did not alter significantly the radiopacity or setting time values (p > 0.05). Adding 10% calcium hydroxide reduced the flow compared with pure AH Plus and AH Plus/5% calcium hydroxide. The addition of 5% and 10% calcium hydroxide increased the solubility and expansion of AH Plus. All materials presented expansion valued above those recommended by the ADA. The addition of calcium hydroxide to the sealer resulted in greater film thickness. Conclusions: The addition of 5% calcium hydroxide did not affect most physical properties of AH Plus sealer. (J Endod 2010;36:1048-1051)

Evaluation of the flow rate of 3 endodontic sealers: Sealer 26, AH Plus, and MTA Obtura

Objective. The aim of this study was to evaluate the flow rate of 3 endodontic sealers: Sealer 26, AH Plus, and MTA Obtura. Study design. According to the method proposed by the American Dental Association (ADA specification no. 57), the sealers were placed between 2 glass slabs under a weight of 120 g. The diameters of the formed discs were measured with a digital paquimeter. The test was repeated 5 times for each sealer. Results. The results were expressed as arithmetic means, and the statistical analysis was performed through Tukey test. AH Plus showed significantly superior flow rate compared with Sealer 26 and MTA Obtura. There was no statistically significant difference between flow rates presented by Sealer 26 and MTA Obtura. Conclusion. Within the limitations of this in vitro study, it was concluded that all of the the endodontic sealers tested presented greater flow than the minimum recommended in the ADA 57 specification. (Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2010;109:e47-e49)

Evaluation of the radiopacity of some commercial and experimental root-end filling materials

Objective. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the radiopacity of 5 root end filling materials (white MTA Angelus, MTA Bio, light-cured MTA, Sealepox RP, and Portland cement clinker with bismuth oxide and calcium sulfate). Method. Five specimens, 10 mm in diameter and 1 mm in thickness according to specification ISO 6876: 2001 were fabricated from each material and radiographed using Insigth occlusal films close to a graduated aluminum step-wedge (2 to 16 mm in thickness). Radiographs were digitized and compared to the aluminum step-wedge. The radiographic density data were converted into millimeters of aluminum (mm Al), using the Digora 1.51 software. Results were evaluated statistically using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey test. The level of significance was set at 5% (P<.05%). Results. Radiopacity values ranged from 1.21 mm Al (light-cured MTA) to 6.45 mm Al (MTA Angelus). Comparison between materials showed significant difference (P<.05) between MTA Angelus and all other materials, between Sealepox RP and MTA Bio, and between light-cured MTA and Portland cement clinker. Light-cured MTA was significantly less radiopaque than all other materials. No significant difference (P>.05) was found between MTA Bio and Portland cement clinker. Conclusions. All retrograde filling materials evaluated showed greater radiopacity than dentin. All the materials, except light-cured MTA met the minimum radiopacity standards of 3 mm Al recognized by the ISO 6876: 2001 and ADA n.57. (Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod 2009; 108: e35-e38)