树突状细胞体外分化成熟的时程、mi/mRNA 表达谱分析和共生菌影响的研究

树突状细胞（dendritic cells, DC）作为机体天然免疫和获得性免疫反应的桥梁和枢纽，发挥着重要的启动和调控作用。随着体外诱导方法的建立和生物学技术的进步，有关DC 的基础生物学研究得到了快速的发展，在诱导方法、个体发生及基因表达和调控等方面，涌现出很多新的、未解的关键问题。同时，随着对粘膜免疫机理研究的深入，DC 在粘膜生态环境中的功能和影响，渐已成为免疫学研究前沿领域中的热点和要点。在本研究中，为了确定DC 体外分化成熟的最短时程，同时为了研究DC 分化成熟相关的基因表达调控，我们建立了快速的DC 体外诱导方法，分析了体外快速诱导 DC 的mi/mRNA 表达谱。此外，在原始分离的女性生殖道共生乳酸杆菌的基础上，以THP-1作为DC 前体细胞的细胞系模型，开展了女性生殖道共生乳酸杆菌刺激活化 THP-1 的研究，希望能够为乳酸杆菌作为生殖道粘膜免疫疫苗的应用提供理论基础。首先，采用外周血单个核细胞（peripheral blood mononuclear cells, PBMC）来源的CD14+细胞为DC 前体，经过GM-CSF 和IL-4 的刺激，1-6 天后得到未成熟DC （immature dendritic cells, iDC），并经成熟因子（TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 与PGE2）诱导 1-2 天后，获得成熟DC（mature dendritic cells, mDC）。经过比较和分析，明确了完全分化和成熟各2 天，即“2+2”，为DC 诱导分化的最佳和最短时程，从而证实和建立了DC 体外快速诱导的体系和方法。该方法获得的iDC 与mDC，具有与传统的“6+2” 方法获得的DC 相同的形态与表型，而且，利用该方法获得的DC 总数高于“1+1”， “1+2”与“6+2”的方法，为DC 的生物学研究提供了基础数据。我们进而采用芯片技术，对体外快速分化成熟的DC 进行了mi/mRNA 表达谱分析，确定了DC 不同分化发育阶段特征性的mi/mRNA 表达差异。结果发现，与CD14+ 单核细胞即DC 前体相比，iDC 与mDC 之间具有更加相近的mi/mRNA 表达方式。 miRNA 表达谱分析则表明，不同的miRNA 表达与DC 的不同分化和发育阶段相关。而且，位于同一基因簇内的miRNA，呈现协同表达的情况。特别值得注意的是，本研究发现了在DC 的某些发育阶段特异表达的miRNA，它们在DC 发育过程中的功能，还未得到诠释，它们在DC 某些分化阶段的特异表达，提示了DC 各分化阶段的相关性与特异性。结合mRNA 表达谱分析，我们发现miRNA 的表达与其目的基因的表达在mRNA 水平呈现负相关的特性。同时，免疫相关mRNA 与miRNA 在DC 体外不同发育阶段的表达亦呈现差异，其中，miRNA（如hsa-miR-181a, hsa-miR-223, hsa-miR-155, hsa-miR-146, hsa-miR-106a 与hsa-miR-20a 等）与mRNA（如ALM1 等）参与了特定的与免疫相关的GO（Gene Ontology）与通路（Pathway），提示这些miRNA 与mRNA 可能通过不同的方式调节控制着DC 的体外诱导过程。在有关粘膜生态环境中DC 的分化、成熟及其功能影响的研究中，我们首先通过各种乳酸杆菌鉴定方法的综合应用，确定了6 种原始分离的女性生殖道主要共生乳酸杆菌：发酵乳酸杆菌（L.Fermentum）、约氏乳酸杆菌（L.Johnsonni）、卷曲乳酸杆菌（L.Crispatus）、革氏乳酸杆菌（L.Gasseri）、詹氏乳酸杆菌（L.Jensenii）与德氏乳酸杆菌（L.Delbrueckii ）。其中，德氏乳酸杆菌（L.Delbrueckii）和发酵乳酸杆菌（L.Fermentum）具有较高的产H2O2 的能力。在此基础上，我们在与THP-1 的共同培养体系中，将乳酸杆菌对DC 前体的作用和影响进行了比较和研究。结果发现，L.Crispatus 在分离的各原始菌株中，具有最强的刺激THP-1 活化的能力，而且，在相同刺激比例下，L.Crispatus 活菌具有比死菌更强的免疫刺激能力，表现为明显上调THP-1 细胞表面标志CD40、CD80、CD86、 CD1a、CCR6 与CD324 的表达水平，同时可诱导活化THP-1 上调表达Th1 型细胞因子。通过FITC-Dextran 吞噬实验，我们发现，经过L.Crispatus 刺激的THP-1 细胞，其吞噬外来抗原的能力明显下降，但尚未检测到经过活化的THP-1 细胞刺激T 细胞增殖的能力。通过流式细胞术分析的方法，我们检测了TLR1、TLR2、TLR4 与TLR6 在不同的刺激分化阶段的表达水平，结果表明，THP-1 主要通过TLR2 与TLR6 识别女性生殖道L.Crispatus。综上所述，本研究首先通过对DC 体外分化成熟的最短时程的分析，确立了快速诱导DC 的最佳方法，进而利用芯片技术，研究了快速诱导DC 的mi/mRNA 表达谱，揭示了DC 体外分化发育过程中可能的调控途径，为进一步研究DC 的基础生物学提供了恰当的模型和具有指向性的线索。同时，通过与DC 前体THP-1 的共同培养体系，证实了生殖道共生乳酸杆菌的免疫调节作用，为以乳酸杆菌为载体的生殖道粘膜免疫疫苗的研究和应用提供了实验依据

Different morphology, stage and treatment affect immune cell infiltration and long-term outcome in patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma

Aims: Development of effective immune-based therapies for patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) depends on an accurate characterization of complex interactions that occur between immune cells and the tumour environment. Methods and results: Innate and adaptive immune responses were evaluated in relation to prognosis in 65 patients with surgically excised NSCLC. Immunohistochemistry and morphometry were used to determine the abundance and distribution of immune cells. We found low numbers of immune cells and levels of cytokines in the tumour environment when compared with surrounding parenchyma. Smoking was associated inversely with the adaptive immune response and directly with innate immunity. We observed a prominent adaptive immune response in squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) but greater innate immune responses in adenocarcinomas and large cell carcinomas. Cox model analysis showed a low risk of death for smoking <41 packs/year, N-0 tambour stage, squamous carcinoma, CD4(+) > 16.81% and macrophages/monocytes >4.5%. Collectively, the data indicate that in NSCLC there is not a substantive local immune cell infiltrate within the tumour. Conclusion: Although immune cell infiltration is limited in NSCLC it appears to have an impact on prognosis and this may be of relevance for new immunotherapeutic approaches.

Regulation der Funktion dendritischer Zellen im immunologischen steady state

Dendritische Zellen sind professionelle Antigenpräsentierende Zellen und übernehmen sowohl in der Aktivierung naiver T-Zellen als auch in der Aufrechterhaltung peripherer Toleranz eine zentrale Funktion. Ruhende Dendritische Zellen im immunologischen Steady State induzieren antigenspezifisch Toleranz in autoreaktiven T-Zellen, welche bei der negativen Selektion im Thymus nicht eliminiert wurden und verhindern somit die Entstehung von Autoimmunität. Mit Hilfe eines transgenen Maus Modells, welches die induzierbare Expression transgen kodierter CD8+ T-Zell-Epitope auf ruhenden Dendritischen Zellen erlaubt, konnten wir zeigen, dass die periphere Toleranz Induktion durch Dendritische Zellen in Abwesenheit von regulatorischen T-Zellen beeinträchtigt ist. Wir konnten verdeutlichen, dass für die Suppression von steady-state Dendritischen Zellen die Erkennung von MHC Klasse II Molekülen auf Dendritischen Zellen durch den T-Zell-Rezeptor regulatorischer T-Zellen zwingend erforderlich ist. In Abwesenheit dieser suppressiven Interaktion hatten Dendritische Zellen einen aktivierten Phänotyp und lösten eine funktionale T-Zell-Antwort aus, anstatt periphere Toleranz zu induzieren. Als Folge dessen entwickelten Mäuse, in denen Dendritische Zellen nicht antigenspezifisch mit suppressiven CD4+ T-Zellen interagieren konnten, spontane Autoimmunität, welche durch CD8+ T-Zellen mediiert wurde. Wir konnten weiterhin zeigen, dass der Verlust peripherer T-Zell Toleranz durch basale Level an Typ I Interferonen mediiert wird sowie durch CD40 Signale, welche von adaptiven Immunzellen geliefert werden.

Function of liver activation-regulated chemokine/CC chemokine ligand 20 is differently affected by cathepsin B and cathepsin D processing

Chemokine processing by proteases is emerging as an important regulatory mechanism of leukocyte functions and possibly also of cancer progression. We screened a large panel of chemokines for degradation by cathepsins B and D, two proteases involved in tumor progression. Among the few substrates processed by both proteases, we focused on CCL20, the unique chemokine ligand of CCR6 that is expressed on immature dendritic cells and subtypes of memory lymphocytes. Analysis of the cleavage sites demonstrate that cathepsin B specifically cleaves off four C-terminally located amino acids and generates a CCL20(1-66) isoform with full functional activity. By contrast, cathepsin D totally inactivates the chemotactic potency of CCL20 by generating CCL20(1-55), CCL20(1-52), and a 12-aa C-terminal peptide CCL20(59-70). Proteolytic cleavage of CCL20 occurs also with chemokine bound to glycosaminoglycans. In addition, we characterized human melanoma cells as a novel CCL20 source and as cathepsin producers. CCL20 production was up-regulated by IL-1alpha and TNF-alpha in all cell lines tested, and in human metastatic melanoma cells. Whereas cathepsin D is secreted in the extracellular milieu, cathepsin B activity is confined to cytosol and cellular membranes. Our studies suggest that CCL20 processing in the extracellular environment of melanoma cells is exclusively mediated by cathepsin D. Thus, we propose a model where cathepsin D inactivates CCL20 and possibly prevents the establishment of an effective antitumoral immune response in melanomas.

THE EXPRESSION AND CELLULAR LOCALIZATION OF CC-CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR 5 (CCR5) AFTER TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Traumatic brain injury results from a primary insult and secondary events that together result in tissue injury. This primary injury occurs at the moment of impact and damage can include scalp laceration, skull fraction, cerebral contusions and lacerations as well as intracranial hemorrhage. Following the initial insult, a delayed response occurs and is characterized by hypoxia, ischemia, cerebral edema, and infection. During secondary brain injury, a series of neuroinflammatory events are triggered that can produce additional damage but may also help to protect nervous tissue from invading pathogens and help to repair the damaged tissue. Brain microglia and astrocytes become activated and migrate to the site of injury where these cells secrete immune mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. CC-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is a member of the CC chemokine receptor family of seven transmembrane G protein coupled receptors. CCR5 is expressed in the immune system and is found in monocytes, leukoctyes, memory T cells, and immature dendritic cells. Upon binding to its ligands, CCR5 functions in the chemotaxis of these immune cells to the site of inflammation. In the CNS, CCR5 and its ligands are expressed in multiple cell types. In this study, I investigated whether CCR5 expression is altered in brain after traumatic brain injury. I examined the time course of CCR5 protein expression in cortex and hippocampus using quantitative western analysis of tissues from injured rat brain after mild impact injury. In addition, I also investigated the cellular localization of CCR5 before and after brain injury using confocal microscopy. I have observed that after brain injury CCR5 is upregulated in a time dependent manner in neurons of the parietal cortex and hippocampus. The absence of CCR5 expression in microglia and its delayed expression in neurons after injury suggests a role for CCR5 in neuronal survival after injury.

THE EXPRESSION AND CELLULAR LOCALIZATION OF CC-CHEMOKINE RECEPTOR 5 (CCR5) AFTER TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY

Traumatic brain injury results from a primary insult and secondary events that together result in tissue injury. This primary injury occurs at the moment of impact and damage can include scalp laceration, skull fraction, cerebral contusions and lacerations as well as intracranial hemorrhage. Following the initial insult, a delayed response occurs and is characterized by hypoxia, ischemia, cerebral edema, and infection. During secondary brain injury, a series of neuroinflammatory events are triggered that can produce additional damage but may also help to protect nervous tissue from invading pathogens and help to repair the damaged tissue. Brain microglia and astrocytes become activated and migrate to the site of injury where these cells secrete immune mediators such as cytokines and chemokines. CC-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5) is a member of the CC chemokine receptor family of seven transmembrane G protein coupled receptors. CCR5 is expressed in the immune system and is found in monocytes, leukoctyes, memory T cells, and immature dendritic cells. Upon binding to its ligands, CCR5 functions in the chemotaxis of these immune cells to the site of inflammation. In the CNS, CCR5 and its ligands are expressed in multiple cell types. In this study, I investigated whether CCR5 expression is altered in brain after traumatic brain injury. I examined the time course of CCR5 protein expression in cortex and hippocampus using quantitative western analysis of tissues from injured rat brain after mild impact injury. In addition, I also investigated the cellular localization of CCR5 before and after brain injury using confocal microscopy. I have observed that after brain injury CCR5 is upregulated in a time dependent manner in neurons of the parietal cortex and hippocampus. The absence of CCR5 expression in microglia and its delayed expression in neurons after injury suggests a role for CCR5 in neuronal survival after injury.

Developmental plasticity of CNS microglia

Microglia arise from CD45+ bone marrow precursors that colonize the fetal brain and play a key role in central nervous system inflammatory conditions. We report that parenchymal microglia are uncommitted myeloid progenitors of immature dendritic cells and macrophages by several criteria, including surface expression of “empty” class II MHC protein and their cysteine protease (cathepsin) profile. Microglia express receptors for stem cell factor and can be skewed toward more dendritic cell or macrophage-like profiles in response to the lineage growth factors granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor or macrophage colony-stimulating factor. Thus, in contrast to other organs, where terminally differentiated populations of resident dendritic cells and/or macrophages outnumber colonizing precursors, the majority of microglia within the brain remain in an undifferentiated state.

Human proximal tubule epithelial cells modulate autologous dendritic cell function

Background We have previously demonstrated that human kidney proximal tubule epithelial cells (PTEC) are able to modulate autologous T and B lymphocyte responses. It is well established that dendritic cells (DC) are responsible for the initiation and direction of adaptive immune responses and that these cells occur in the renal interstitium in close apposition to PTEC under inflammatory disease settings. However, there is no information regarding the interaction of PTEC with DC in an autologous human context. Methods Human monocytes were differentiated into monocyte-derived DC (MoDC) in the absence or presence of primary autologous activated PTEC and matured with polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid [poly(I:C)], while purified, pre-formed myeloid blood DC (CD1c+ BDC) were cultured with autologous activated PTEC in the absence or presence of poly(I:C) stimulation. DC responses were monitored by surface antigen expression, cytokine secretion, antigen uptake capacity and allogeneic T-cell-stimulatory ability. Results The presence of autologous activated PTEC inhibited the differentiation of monocytes to MoDC. Furthermore, MoDC differentiated in the presence of PTEC displayed an immature surface phenotype, efficient phagocytic capacity and, upon poly(I:C) stimulation, secreted low levels of pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin (IL)-12p70, high levels of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and induced weak Th1 responses. Similarly, pre-formed CD1c+ BDC matured in the presence of PTEC exhibited an immature tolerogenic surface phenotype, strong endocytic and phagocytic ability and stimulated significantly attenuated T-cell proliferative responses. Conclusions Our data suggest that activated PTEC regulate human autologous immunity via complex interactions with DC. The ability of PTEC to modulate autologous DC function has important implications for the dampening of pro-inflammatory immune responses within the tubulointerstitium in renal injuries. Further dissection of the mechanisms of PTEC modulation of autologous immune responses may offer targets for therapeutic intervention in renal medicine.

Packed red blood cells suppress myeloid dendritic cell and monocyte inflammatory responses in a whole blood model of transfusion

Purpose/Objective: The basis for poor outcomes in some patients post transfusion remains largely unknown. Despite leukodepletion, there is still evidence of immunomodulatory effects of transfusion that require further study. In addition, there is evidence that the age of blood components transfused significantly affects patient outcomes. Myeloid dendritic cell (DC) and monocyte immune function were studied utilising an in vitro whole blood model of transfusion. Materials and methods: Freshly collected (‘recipient’) whole blood was cultured with ABO compatible leukodepleted PRBC at 25% blood replacement-volume (6hrs). PRBC were assayed at [Day (D) 2, 14, 28and 42 (date-of expiry)]. In parallel, LPS or Zymosan (Zy) were added to mimic infection. Recipients were maintained for the duration of the time course (2 recipients, 4 PRBC units, n = 8).Recipient DC and monocyte intracellular cytokines and chemokines (IL-6, IL-10, IL-12,TNF-a, IL-1a, IL-8, IP-10, MIP-1a, MIP-1b, MCP-1) were measured using flow cytometry. Changes in immune response were calculated by comparison to a parallel no transfusion control (Wilcoxin matched pairs). Influence of storage age was calculated using ANOVA. Results: Significant suppression of DC and monocyte inflammatory responses were evident. DC and monocyte production of IL-1a was reduced following exposure to PRBC regardless of storage age (P < 0.05 at all time points). Storage independent PRBC mediated suppression of DC and monocyte IL-1a was also evident in cultures costimulated with Zy. In cultures co-stimulated with either LPS or Zy, significant suppression of DC and monocyte TNF-a and IL-6 was also evident. PRBC storage attenuated monocyte TNF-a production when co-cultured with LPS (P < 0.01 ANOVA). DC and monocyte production of MIP-1a was significantly reduced following exposure to PRBC (DC: P < 0.05 at D2, 28, 42; Monocyte P < 0.05 all time points). In cultures co-stimulated with LPS and zymosan, a similar suppression of MIP-1a production was also evident, and production of both DC and monocyte MIP-1b and IP-10 were also significantly reduced. Conclusions: The complexity of the transfusion context was reflected in the whole blood approach utilised. Significant suppression of these key DC and monocyte immune responses may contribute to patient outcomes, such as increased risk of infection and longer hospital stay, following blood transfusion.

Autologous human kidney proximal tubule epithelial cells (PTEC) modulate dendritic cell (DC), T cell and B cell responses

This is a comprehensive study of human kidney proximal tubular epithelial cells (PTEC) which are known to respond to and mediate the pathological process of a range of kidney diseases. It identifies various molecules expressed by PTEC and how these molecules participate in down-regulating the inflammatory process, thereby highlighting the clinical potential of these molecules to treat various kidney diseases. In the disease state, PTEC gain the ability to regulate the immune cell responses present within the interstitium. This down-regulation is a complex interaction of contact dependent/independent mechanisms involving various immuno-regulatory molecules including PD-L1, sHLA-G and IDO. The overall outcome of this down-regulation is suppressed DC maturation, decreased number of antibody producing B cells and low T cell responses. These manifestations within a clinical setting are expected to dampen the ongoing inflammation, preventing the damage caused to the kidney tissue.

The Glycosylated Rv1860 Protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Inhibits Dendritic Cell Mediated TH1 and TH17 Polarization of T Cells and Abrogates Protective Immunity Conferred by BCG

We previously reported interferon gamma secretion by human CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in response to recombinant E. coli-expressed Rv1860 protein of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) as well as protection of guinea pigs against a challenge with virulent MTB following prime-boost immunization with DNA vaccine and poxvirus expressing Rv1860. In contrast, a Statens Serum Institute Mycobacterium bovis BCG (BCG-SSI) recombinant expressing MTB Rv1860 (BCG-TB1860) showed loss of protective ability compared to the parent BCG strain expressing the control GFP protein (BCG-GFP). Since Rv1860 is a secreted mannosylated protein of MTB and BCG, we investigated the effect of BCG-TB1860 on innate immunity. Relative to BCG-GFP, BCG-TB1860 effected a significant near total reduction both in secretion of cytokines IL-2, IL-12p40, IL-12p70, TNF-alpha, IL-6 and IL-10, and up regulation of co-stimulatory molecules MHC-II, CD40, CD54, CD80 and CD86 by infected bone marrow derived dendritic cells (BMDC), while leaving secreted levels of TGF-beta unchanged. These effects were mimicked by BCG-TB1860His which carried a 6-Histidine tag at the C-terminus of Rv1860, killed sonicated preparations of BCG-TB1860 and purified H37Rv-derived Rv1860 glycoprotein added to BCG-GFP, but not by E. coli-expressed recombinant Rv1860. Most importantly, BMDC exposed to BCG-TB1860 failed to polarize allogeneic as well as syngeneic T cells to secrete IFN-gamma and IL-17 relative to BCG-GFP. Splenocytes from mice infected with BCG-SSI showed significantly less proliferation and secretion of IL-2, IFN-gamma and IL-17, but secreted higher levels of IL-10 in response to in vitro restimulation with BCG-TB1860 compared to BCG-GFP. Spleens from mice infected with BCG-TB1860 also harboured significantly fewer DC expressing MHC-II, IL-12, IL-2 and TNF-alpha compared to mice infected with BCG-GFP. Glycoproteins of MTB, through their deleterious effects on DC may thus contribute to suppress the generation of a TH1- and TH17-dominated adaptive immune response that is vital for protection against tuberculosis.

CCL11 blocks IL-4 and GM-CSF signaling in hematopoietic cells and hinders dendritic cell differentiation via suppressor of cytokine signaling expression

The chemokine eotaxin/CCL11 is an important mediator of leukocyte migration, but its effect on inflammatory cytokine signaling has not been explored. In this study, we find that CCL11 induces suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) 1 and SOCS3 expression in murine macrophages, human monocytes, and dendritic cells (DCs). We also discover that CCL11 inhibits GM-CSF-mediated STAT5 activation and IL-4-induced STAT6 activation in a range of hematopoietic cells. This blockade of cytokine signaling by CCL11 results in reduced differentiation and endocytic ability of DCs, implicating CCL11-induced SOCS as mediators of chemotactic inflammatory control. These findings demonstrate cross-talk between chemokine and cytokine responses, suggesting that myeloid cells tracking to the inflammatory site do not differentiate in the presence of this chemokine, revealing another role for SOCS in inflammatory regulation. J. Leukoc. Biol. 85: 289-297; 2009.

Priming of CD8+ and CD4+ T Cells in Experimental Leishmaniasis Is Initiated by Different Dendritic Cell Subtypes

The biological role of Langerin(+) dendritic cells (DCs) such as Langerhans cells and a subset of dermal DCs (dDCs) in adaptive immunity against cutaneous pathogens remains enigmatic. Thus, we analyzed the impact of Langerin(+) DCs in adaptive T cell-mediated immunity toward Leishmania major parasites in a Lang-DTR mouse model that allows conditional diphtheria toxin (DT)-induced ablation of The biological role of Langerin+ dendritic cells (DCs) such as Langerhans cells and a subset of dermal DCs (dDCs) in adaptive immunity against cutaneous pathogens remains enigmatic. Thus, we analyzed the impact of Langerin+ DCs in adaptive T cell-mediated immunity toward Leishmania major parasites in a Lang-DTR mouse model that allows conditional diphtheria toxin (DT)-induced ablation of Langerin+ DCs in vivo. For the first time, infection experiments with DT-treated Lang-DTR mice revealed that proliferation of L. major-specific CD8+ T cells is significantly reduced during the early phase of the immune response following depletion of Langerin+ DCs. Consequently, the total number of activated CD8+ T cells within the draining lymph node and at the site of infection is diminished. Furthermore, we show that the impaired CD8+ T cell response is due to the absence of Langerin+ dDCs and not Langerhans cells. Nevertheless, the CD4+ T cell response is not altered and the infection is cleared as effectively in DT-treated Lang-DTR mice as in control mice. This clearly demonstrates that Langerin+ DCs are, in general, dispensable for an efficient adaptive immune response against L. major parasites. Thus, we propose a novel concept that, in the experimental model of leishmaniasis, priming of CD4+ T cells is mediated by Langerin− dDCs, whereas Langerin+ dDCs are involved in early priming of CD8+ T cells.

Foxp3+ T cells induce Perforin-Dependent Dendritic Cell Death in Tumor-Draining Lymph Nodes.

Regulatory T (Treg) cells limit the onset of effective antitumor immunity, through yet-ill-defined mechanisms. We showed the rejection of established ovalbumin (OVA)-expressing MCA101 tumors required both the adoptive transfer of OVA-specific CD8(+) T cell receptor transgenic T cells (OTI) and the neutralization of Foxp3(+) T cells. In tumor-draining lymph nodes, Foxp3(+) T cell neutralization induced a marked arrest in the migration of OTI T cells, increased numbers of dendritic cells (DCs), and enhanced OTI T cell priming. Using an in vitro cytotoxic assay and two-photon live microscopy after adoptive transfer of DCs, we demonstrated that Foxp3(+) T cells induced the death of DCs in tumor-draining lymph nodes, but not in the absence of tumor. DC death correlated with Foxp3(+) T cell-DC contacts, and it was tumor-antigen and perforin dependent. We conclude that Foxp3(+) T cell-dependent DC death in tumor-draining lymph nodes limits the onset of CD8(+) T cell responses.

Defects in acute responses to TLR4 in Btk-deficient mice result in impaired dendritic cell-induced IFN-γ production by natural killer cells

This study defines a critical role for Btk in regulating TLR4-induced crosstalk between antigen presenting cells (APCs) and natural killer (NK) cells. Reduced levels of IL-12, IL-18 and IFN-? were observed in Btk-deficient mice and ex vivo generated macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) following acute LPS administration, whilst enhanced IL-10 production was observed. In addition, upregulation of activation markers and antigen presentation molecules on APCs was also impaired in the absence of Btk. APCs, by virtue of their ability to produce IL-12 and IL-18, are strong inducers of NK-derived IFN-?. Co-culture experiments demonstrate that Btk-deficient DCs were unable to drive wild-type or Btk-deficient NK cells to induce IFN-? production, whereas these responses could be restored by exogenous administration of IL-12 and IL-18. Thus Btk is a critical regulator of APC-induced NK cell activation by virtue of its ability to regulate IL-12 and IL-18 production in response to acute LPS administration.