Static pressure and wall shear stress distributions in air flow in a seven wire-wrapped rod bundle

An experimental investigation is performed in a turbulent flow in a seven wire-wrapped rod bundle, mounted in an open air facility. Static pressure distributions are measured on central and peripheral rods. By using a Preston tube, the wall shear stress profiles are experimentally obtained along the perimeter of the rods. The geometric parameters of the test section are P/D=1.20 and H/D=15. The measuring section is located at L/D=40 from the air inlet. It is observed that the dimensionless static pressure and wall shear stress profiles are nearly independent of the Reynolds number and strongly dependent of the wire-spacer position, with abrupt variations of the parameters in the neighborhood of the wires.

Forecasting of wind speeds and directions with artificial neural networks

In this master’s thesis, wind speeds and directions were modeled with the aim of developing suitable models for hourly, daily, weekly and monthly forecasting. Artificial Neural Networks implemented in MATLAB software were used to perform the forecasts. Three main types of artificial neural network were built, namely: Feed forward neural networks, Jordan Elman neural networks and Cascade forward neural networks. Four sub models of each of these neural networks were also built, corresponding to the four forecast horizons, for both wind speeds and directions. A single neural network topology was used for each of the forecast horizons, regardless of the model type. All the models were then trained with real data of wind speeds and directions collected over a period of two years in the municipal region of Puumala in Finland. Only 70% of the data was used for training, validation and testing of the models, while the second last 15% of the data was presented to the trained models for verification. The model outputs were then compared to the last 15% of the original data, by measuring the mean square errors and sum square errors between them. Based on the results, the feed forward networks returned the lowest generalization errors for hourly, weekly and monthly forecasts of wind speeds; Jordan Elman networks returned the lowest errors when used for forecasting of daily wind speeds. Cascade forward networks gave the lowest errors when used for forecasting daily, weekly and monthly wind directions; Jordan Elman networks returned the lowest errors when used for hourly forecasting. The errors were relatively low during training of the models, but shot up upon simulation with new inputs. In addition, a combination of hyperbolic tangent transfer functions for both hidden and output layers returned better results compared to other combinations of transfer functions. In general, wind speeds were more predictable as compared to wind directions, opening up opportunities for further research into building better models for wind direction forecasting.

Morphology and anatomy in Heliconia angusta Vell. and H. velloziana L. Emygd. (Zingiberales: Heliconiaceae) from the Atlantic forest of southeastern Brazil

Morphological and anatomical features of roots, stems, leaves, and scapes were studied in Heliconia angusta and H. velloziana from the Atlantic forest in the southeastern of Brazil. Morphologically H. angusta and H. velloziana show differences in their sizes, blade shapes, number and shape of inflorescence bracts. On the other hand, they have common anatomical characteristics such as: roots with air-canals in the cortex; rhizomes with isolated fiber bundles, collateral vascular bundles, and uniseriate endodermis and pericycle; leaves presenting air-canals and collateral vascular bundles forming arcs, and thin-walled epidermal cells; scapes with collateral vascular and fiber bundles in the cortex. The distribution of the fiber bundles in the leaves and in the scapes was different for each species, having a taxonomical value, H. velloziana presenting continuous fiber bundles. Air-canals in roots and leaves with narrow mesophyll might be related to the moist understorey of the Atlantic forest habitats.

Primary and secondary development of Cyperus giganteus Vahl rhizome (Cyperaceae)

In Cyperus giganteus, like in other Monocotyledoneae, the protoderm, procambium, fundamental meristem and primary thickening meristem (PTM) are differentiated from the rhizome promeristem. The PTM produces the inner cortical parenchyma, endodermis, pericycle and amphivasal vascular bundles, which are formed by the procambium too. After the primary body differentiates, cellular divisions continue only in the pericycle, and originate an irregular vascular system with vessel elements shorter and more branched than those found in the primary growth. This change of activity in the pericycle defines a secondary growth, where the secondary thickening meristem (STM) is the pericycle itself.

Anatomy and ontogenesis of hymenopteran leaf galls of Struthanthus vulgaris Mart. (Loranthaceae)

Leaves of Struthanthus vulgaris Mart. (Loranthaceae) exhibit galls induced by a Hymenoptera. These galls pass through five developmental stages. In the first stage, a small brown swelling is observed on the surface of the leaf. Internally, the chlorenchyma cells around the eggs of the gall-makers are divided. In the second stage, the gall enlarges and its surface assumes a wavy appearance with a depressed region in its center. Within this depression, an incompletely divided gall chamber with embryos is observed. Neoformed parenchyma is present around the chamber and the secondary walls of fibers and sclereids are no longer observed. The vascular parenchyma shows hyperplasia. In the third stage, the gall grows larger and adopts an ellipsoidal shape. Fissures appear on the gall epidermis and the neoformed parenchyma is conspicuous, with a cortical and a medullar region. In the medullar region, each gall chamber, with one inducer in larval phase, is lined with 1-2 layers of nutritive tissue. The gall is larger still at the fourth stage of development and a periderm coats most of the gall. New vascular bundles, sclereids, and fibers are formed. The gall-makers are in advanced larval phase and no nutritive tissue cells are observed. In the fifth stage, the gall reaches its definitive size and the inducers are in the pupa phase. At this stage, the cortical region undergoes slight hypertrophy. The senescent gall shows the orifices of the exit channel made by the adult gallmakers. The anatomical studies of the hymenopteran gall enabled to compare this gall with a dipteran one, previously discribed in the same plant host. It is suggested that during the maturation of the gall, specific key processes are triggered, which bring about a specific cecidogenesis.

Vegetative organ anatomy of Ianthopappus corymbosus Roque & Hind (Asteraceae-Mutisieae)

A study on the vegetative organ anatomy of Ianthopappus corymbosus was conducted in order to provide a basis for comparison with the genus Richterago, since this species had been previously included in that genus. The anatomical characters of I. corymbosus that support its exclusion from the genus Richteragon are: epithelial cell organization of adventitious root secretory canals, non-glandular trichomes, and presence of cortical vascular bundles in the stem. In Ianthopappus corymbosus, the underground system consists of rhizophore from which adventitious roots branch off. The subapical meristem of the adventitious root revealed that the ground meristem forms the inner layer which in a meristematic phase, forms 2/3 of the cortex. This layer will differentiate in the endodermis, with Casparian strips, and is referred to as meristematic endodermis. Endodermic secretory canals, limited by four epithelial cells, appear in the region adjacent to the primary phloem.

Morphology and anatomy of the fruit and seed in development of Chorisia speciosa A. St.-Hil. - Bombacaceae

The structure of the fruit and seed in development of Chorisia speciosa are described with the main purpose of clarifying the origin and nature of the hairs that cover the seeds and aiding future taxonomical and ecological studies of the group. The fruit is an ellipsoid loculicide capsule and presents the exocarp formed by 7-10 cells layers, with very thick walls and evident simple pits. A great number of mucilage secretory cavities and ramified vascular bundles, accompanied by fibers, occur in the parenchymatic mesocarp. The endocarp derives from the ventral epidermis of the ovary wall, whose cells undergo a gradual elongation, become lignified, and constitute the trichomes which cover the mature seeds. The fruit aperture occurs by means of a suture evident in the ovarian wall in the middle region of the carpel leaf. Anatropous and bitegmic ovules, provided by a hypostase, give rise to campilotropous and bitegmic seeds. The testa is uniseriate, the exotegmen is completely formed by macrosclereids, and mucilage secretory cavities occur in the mesotegmen. The endotegmen, which is differentiated in the endothelium, is crushed in the mature seed. The plicate embryo, which occupies practically the entire seminal cavity, is found between endosperm layers, both being rich in lipids.

Origin and structure of the Kranz tissue in bracts of Cyperus giganteus Vahl (Cyperaceae)

Cyperus giganteus shows Kranz anatomy of the clorocyperoid type or with two sheaths, one internal, adjacent to the vascular system and known as Kranz sheath, with thin-walled cells and a large number of organelles, mainly chloroplasts; and an external sheath, the mestome sheath or endodermis, the cells of which present thickened walls, are without chloroplasts and possess a suberin lamella, together with the casparian strip which are detected in early stages of differentiation. The development of the vascular bundles shows the Kranz sheath originating from the procambial as well as the mestome sheath. The chloroplasts of the Kranz cells are relatively larger, with convoluted thylakoids and a prominent peripheral reticulum, while the chloroplasts of the mesophyll cells are relatively smaller, with thylakoids forming grana and a sparse peripheral reticulum. These ultrastructural characteristics show similarities to those of other species of the genus Cyperus.

Container logistic innovations in forest-energy sector: Markets, future service concepts and technical improvements

The report presents the results of the commercialization project called the Container logistic services for forest bioenergy. The project promotes new business that is emerging around overall container logistic services in the bioenergy sector. The results assess the European markets of the container logistics for biomass, enablers for new business creation and required service bundles for the concept. We also demonstrate the customer value of the container logistic services for different market segments. The concept analysis is based on concept mapping, quality function deployment process (QFD) and business network analysis. The business network analysis assesses key shareholders and their mutual connections. The performance of the roadside chipping chain is analysed by the logistic cost simulation, RFID system demonstration and freezing tests. The EU has set the renewable energy target to 20 % in 2020 of which Biomass could account for two-thirds. In the Europe, the production of wood fuels was 132.9 million solid-m3 in 2012 and production of wood chips and particles was 69.0 million solidm3. The wood-based chips and particle flows are suitable for container transportation providing market of 180.6 million loose- m3 which mean 4.5 million container loads per year. The intermodal logistics of trucks and trains are promising for the composite containers because the biomass does not freeze onto the inner surfaces in the unloading situations. The overall service concept includes several packages: container rental, container maintenance, terminal services, RFID-tracking service, and simulation and ERP-integration service. The container rental and maintenance would provide transportation entrepreneurs a way to increase the capacity without high investment costs. The RFID-concept would lead to better work planning improving profitability throughout the logistic chain and simulation supports fuel supply optimization.

Leaf anatomy of two Anemia Sw. species (Schizaeaceae-Pteridophyte) from a rocky outcrop in Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The ferns Anemia tomentosa (Sav.) Sw. var. anthriscifolia (Schrad.) Mickel and Anemia villosa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd. are widely associated with vegetation islands on rocky outcrops in Rio de Janeiro. Both species are desiccation tolerant. The leaf anatomy of these species was examined aiming to identify morphological characteristics that would allow the establishment of these species in water-scarce environments. The plants were harvested on "Pedra de Itacoatiara" and prepared according to the usual procedures. The petiole has a uniseriate epidermis with lignified cell walls, conical stegmata, and uniseriate multicelular and glandular trichomes. In A. villosa, the stomata protrude in a respiratory line. Under the epidermis the cells have thick, lignified walls. The parenchyma has phenolic compounds and starch grains. The petiole vascular bundles are surrounded by endodermis with Casparian strips and the xylem is V-shaped (A. villosa) or arc-shaped (A. tomentosa var. anthriscifolia). The leaf blades have a uniseriate epidermis with sinuous anticlinal and convex periclinal walls, conical stegmata and chloroplasts on both surfaces. The leaf margins of A. villosa have lignified cells. The guard cells of the stomata on the abaxial surface are on the same level or are raised above ordinary epidermal cells. Multicelular uniseriate trichomes and glandular hairs were observed. The dorsiventral mesophyll has loosely packed chlorenchyma with arm-shaped and H-shaped cells. The vascular bundles are surrounded by endodermis with Casparian strips and with parenchymatic extensions towards the epidermis. Anatomical results were analyzed considering the interaction of these plants with abiotic factors.

Localization of the cotyledon reserves of Theobroma grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) K. Schum., T. subincanum Mart., T. bicolor Bonpl. and their analogies with T. cacao L.

Cotyledon mesophyll cell morphology and lipid and protein synthesis of T. grandiflorum, T. subincanum and T. bicolor were analyzed and compared with T. cacao. These species possess foliar cotyledons folded around the hypocotyl radicle axis, typical of Sterculiaceae. Fruit size, morphology and weight are very distinct amongst the four species and so are the respective seeds. The main axis of the T. grandiflorum and T. bicolor seeds measured about 30 mm, while T. subincanum and T. cacao seeds measured 17 mm and 26 mm respectively. The seed weights of T. grandiflorum, T. bicolor, T. subincanum and T. cacao were 11.6 g, 9.4 g, 2.1 g and 3.0 g, respectively. The cotyledon mesophylls of the four species contained mainly polysaccharides and lipid-protein reserve cells. Theobroma cacao, T. grandiflorum and T. subincanum were composed of greater than 50% lipids. For the four species, lipid globules gradually accumulated adjacent to the cell wall, and these globules measured from 1 to 3 µm. TEM showed low-density proteins inside the central vacuole of the young mesophyll cells of T. cacao. The protein reserves of the mature cells were densely scattered amongst the lipid bodies, and a few starch granules occurred together with the cotyledon mesophyll of the four species. Polyphenolic cells were found throughout the mesophyll cells or aligned with the respective vascular bundles. Immature cells demonstrated the capacity to synthesize all these reserves, but gradually the pre-determined cells produced mainly lipid-protein reserves. Besides the unique characteristics of the T. cacao products, the lipid-protein synthesis capacities of T. grandiflorum, T. subincanum and T. bicolor suggest various possibilities for new industrialized food, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products.

Polyphenolic cells and their interrelation with cotyledon cells in seven species of Theobroma (Sterculiaceae)

The amount of cotyledon polyphenolic cells varies extensively within the Theobroma species. The polyphenolic compounds of these cells play a protective role and furthermore have an important function in the development of chocolate flavour. The morphology of the polyphenolic cells of the mesophyll is described and the development of these idioblasts in Theobroma cacao L., T. subincanum Mart., T. obovatum Klotzsch ex Bernoulli, T. grandiflorum (Willd. ex Spreng.) K. Schum., T. microcarpum Mart., T. bicolor Bonpl. and T. speciosum Willd. ex Spreng analysed. The total polyphenolic content in the seeds as determined by spectrophotometry showed a variation of about forty times. The alive, transparent polyphenolic cells are scattered throughout the cotiledonary mesophyll. However the polyphenolic cells of T. cacao and T. grandiflorum are also aligned perpendicularly with respect to the mesophyll borders and, in addition, both species display polyphenolic cells with a natural translucent purple colour. All the species analysed contained polyphenolic cells scattered throughout the parenchymal cells and also in a lengthwise association with vascular bundles. In T. bicolor and T. speciosum, the species with the lowest polyphenolic contents, these cells were mostly located around the vascular bundles. Using Scanning Electron Microscopy, the polyphenolic cells demonstrated a complex cytoarchitecture, and after fixing with glutaraldhyde, the polyphenolic secretion was shown to remain as a single unit or was organized into round droplets. Transmission Electron Microscopy displayed immature plastids from young mesophyll cells containing eletron-dense deposits similar to phenolic substances, suggesting that Theobroma plastids are involved in the synthesis of phenolics.

Anatomical and developmental aspects of leaf galls induced by Schizomyia macrocapillata Maia (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) on Bauhinia brevipes Vogel (Fabaceae)

Samples of healthy leaves and galls induced by Schizomyia macrocapillata Maia on Bauhinia brevipes Vogel were submitted to routine techniques to investigate gall anatomy and development. Pouch galls are induced on the abaxial surface of unfolded immature leaves, and become spheroid with long reddish hairs covering their external surface. Galls occur isolated or coalesce when in larger numbers. Gall development was divided into six phases: 1) initiation; 2) tissue re-arrangement; 3) tissue differentiation; 4) maturation; 5) growth phase; and 6) dehiscence. This last phase corresponds to gall senescence, which takes place just after the larva exits the chamber to pupate. An important developmental phase of tissue reorientation was recorded after the initiation phase. The presence of hyphae close to the covering layer characterizes this gall as an ambrosia gall and the feeding mode of the gall migde is discussed. Few hyphae were found during the first developmental phases and fungi may play an important role during gall morphogenesis. Neoformed trichomes may provide not only photoprotection but also protection against natural enemies and water loss. The neoformation of phloematic bundles suggests host manipulation and indicates the establishment of a deviating sink.

Ultrastructure of secretory and senescence phase in colleters of Bathysa gymnocarpa and B. stipulata (Rubiaceae)

(Ultrastructure of secretory and senescence phase in colleters of Bathysa gymnocarpa and B. stipulata (Rubiaceae)). Colleters are secretory structures formed by a parenchymatic axis with vascular bundles, bound by a layer of secretory palisade-like epidermis. Some studies regarding the structure of colleters have focused on secretory cells structure, but not distinguished the secretory and senescent phases. Generally, in mucilage-secreting cells such as colleters, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus are involved in secretion production and transport. In these study, colleters structure of Bathysa gymnocarpa K. Schum. and B. stipulata (Vell.) C. Presl. (Rubiaceae) were determined in two phases: a secretory phase and a senescence one. Samples were collected and processed by usual light and electron microscopy techniques. Studied colleters are constituted by an epidermal palisade layer and a central axis formed by parenchymatic cells with rare vascular traces. During the secretory phase, epidermal cells presented a dense cytoplasm, small vacuoles, enhanced rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, and a Golgi apparatus close to large vesicles. During the senescence phase epidermal cells presented a disorganized membrane system. No intact organelles or vesicles were observed. The outer cell wall exhibited similar layers to that observed during the secretory phase. The senescent phase is easily defined by the morphology of the colleters, but not well defined at subcellular level. Our research suggests that programmed cell death starts on secretory phase. However, more evidences are needed to evaluate the phenomena.

Morphological, anatomical and biochemical studies on the foliar galls of Alstonia scholaris (Apocynaceae)

Morphological, anatomical and biochemical alterations in foliar galls of Alstonia scholaris R. Br. induced by the insect Pauropsylla tuberculata (Psyllidae) are described and quantified. Galls occur isolated or agglomerated on the abaxial surface of the leaf. The insect along with the egg deposits some physiologic fluid which act as a stimulant for the induction of the gall. This stimulus brings about hypertrophy followed by hyperplasia of cells next to the location of the deposited eggs. The psyllid presents three nymphal instars, from eclosion of the egg to the adult. Hyperplasia in the palisade cells is very distinctly noticed. Hypertrophy followed by hyperplasia takes place and brings about elevation of hypodermal and palisade parenchyma which undergoes repeated anticlinal divisions. Neoformation of phloematic bundles were distinctly noticed close to the site of infection. With an increase in the growth of the gall, chlorophyll content in the gall tissue decreases. A steady increase of sugar content is noticed. The immature galled tissue showed almost two fold increases in the protein content. The mature galled tissue showed a very high increase in the proline content compared to the immature galled tissue indicating a stressed condition of the galled tissue.