Directional dominance on stature and cognition in diverse human populations

Homozygosity has long been associated with rare, often devastating, Mendelian disorders1, and Darwin was one of the first to recognize that inbreeding reduces evolutionary fitness2. However, the effect of the more distant parental relatedness that is common in modern human populations is less well understood. Genomic data now allow us to investigate the effects of homozygosity on traits of public health importance by observing contiguous homozygous segments (runs of homozygosity), which are inferred to be homozygous along their complete length. Given the low levels of genome-wide homozygosity prevalent in most human populations, information is required on very large numbers of people to provide sufficient power3, 4. Here we use runs of homozygosity to study 16 health-related quantitative traits in 354,224 individuals from 102 cohorts, and find statistically significant associations between summed runs of homozygosity and four complex traits: height, forced expiratory lung volume in one second, general cognitive ability and educational attainment (P < 1 × 10−300, 2.1 × 10−6, 2.5 × 10−10 and 1.8 × 10−10, respectively). In each case, increased homozygosity was associated with decreased trait value, equivalent to the offspring of first cousins being 1.2 cm shorter and having 10 months’ less education. Similar effect sizes were found across four continental groups and populations with different degrees of genome-wide homozygosity, providing evidence that homozygosity, rather than confounding, directly contributes to phenotypic variance. Contrary to earlier reports in substantially smaller samples5, 6, no evidence was seen of an influence of genome-wide homozygosity on blood pressure and low density lipoprotein cholesterol, or ten other cardio-metabolic traits. Since directional dominance is predicted for traits under directional evolutionary selection7, this study provides evidence that increased stature and cognitive function have been positively selected in human evolution, whereas many important risk factors for late-onset complex diseases may not have been.

Book Review: "The Interface: IBM and the Transformation of Corporate Design, 1945-1975", John Harwood, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2011

Within the history of twentieth-century design, there are a number of well-known objects and stories that are invoked time and time again to capture a pivotal moment or summarize a much broader historical transition. For example, Marcel Breuer’s Model B3 chair is frequently used as a stand-in for the radical investigations of form and new industrial materials occurring at the Bauhaus in the mid-1920s. Similarly, Raymond Loewy’s streamlined pencil sharpener has become historical shorthand for the emergence of modern industrial design in the 1930s. And any discussion of the development of American postwar “organic design” seems incomplete without reference to Charles and Ray Eames’s molded plywood leg splint of 1942. Such objects and narratives are dear to historians of modern design. They are tangible, photogenic subjects that slot nicely into exhibitions, historical surveys, and coffee-table best sellers...

Characterisation of properties of coniferous wood tracheids by x-ray diffraction, laser scattering and microscopy

In recent years there has been growing interest in selecting suitable wood raw material to increase end product quality and to increase the efficiency of industrial processes. Genetic background and growing conditions are known to affect properties of growing trees, but only a few parameters reflecting wood quality, such as volume and density can be measured on an industrial scale. Therefore research on cellular level structures of trees grown in different conditions is needed to increase understanding of the growth process of trees leading to desired wood properties. In this work the cellular and cell wall structures of wood were studied. Parameters, such as the mean microfibril angle (MFA), the spiral grain angles, the fibre length, the tracheid cell wall thickness and the cross-sectional shape of the tracheid, were determined as a function of distance from the pith towards the bark and mutual dependencies of these parameters were discussed. Samples from fast-grown trees, which belong to a same clone, grown in fertile soil and also from fertilised trees were measured. It was found that in fast-grown trees the mean MFA decreased more gradually from the pith to the bark than in reference stems. In fast-grown samples cells were shorter, more thin-walled and their cross-sections were rounder than in slower-grown reference trees. Increased growth rate was found to cause an increase in spiral grain variation both within and between annual rings. Furthermore, methods for determination of the mean MFA using x-ray diffraction were evaluated. Several experimental arrangements including the synchrotron radiation based microdiffraction were compared. For evaluation of the data analysis procedures a general form for diffraction conditions in terms of angles describing the fibre orientation and the shape of the cell was derived. The effects of these parameters on the obtained microfibril angles were discussed. The use of symmetrical transmission geometry and tangentially cut samples gave the most reliable MFA values.

Finnish and Austrian Wood Markets in a Changing Environment

At present the operating environment of sawmills in Europe is changing and there are uncertainties related in raw material supply in many countries. The changes in the operating environment of roundwood markets and the effects followed by these changes have brought up several interesting issues from the viewpoint of research. Lately new factors have been influencing the roundwood markets, such as increasing interest towards wood-based energy and implementation of new energy policies as well as changes in wood trade flows that affect the domestic markets in many countries. This Master’s thesis studies the adaptation ability of Finnish roundwood markets in a changing operating environment, aiming to produce an up-to-date analysis considering new development trends. The study concentrates on the roundwood markets from the viewpoint of sawmill industry since the industry is dependent on the functioning of the markets and sawmills are highly affected by the changes on the roundwood markets. To facilitate international comparison, the study is implemented by comparing Finnish and Austrian roundwood markets and analysing changes happening in the two countries. Finland and Austria share rather similar characteristics in the roundwood market structures, forest resources and forest ownership as well as production of roundwood and sawnwood. In addition they both are big exporters of forest industry products. In this study changes in the operating environment of sawmill industry both in Finland as well as in Austria are compared to each other aiming to recognise the main similarities and differences between the countries. In addition both development possibilities as well as challenges followed by the changes are discussed. The aim of the study is to define the main challenges and possibilities confronted by the actors on the markets and also to find new perspectives to approach these. The study is implemented as a qualitative study. The theoretical framework of the study describes the operating environment of wood markets from the viewpoint of the sawmill industry and represents the effects of supply and demand on the wood markets. The primary research material of the study was gathered by interviewing high level experts of forestry and sawmill industry in both Finland and Austria. The aim was to receive as extensive country specific viewpoint from the markets as possible, hence interviewees represented different parties of the markets. After creating country-specific profiles based on the theoretical framework a cross-country comparison was implemented. As a consequence the main similarities and differences in the operating environment and on the roundwood markets of Finland and Austria were recognized. In addition the main challenges and possibilites were identified. The results of the study offer a wide analysis regarding the main similarities and differences of the wood markets of Finland and Austria and their operating environments as well as concerning challenges and possibilities faced on the markets.

Wood-inhabiting Basidiomycetes in the Caucasus Region : Systematics and Biogeography

The Caucasus region is a hotspot of biodiversity and is one of the few areas in the Northern Hemisphere which harbor Pleistocene glacial refugia. The region encompasses Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, the southernmost European Russia, NE Turkey, and northern Iran. The study on fungal composition of the Caucasus region and its connection and possible contribution to the present mycota of Europe has largely escaped empirical scrutiny. Using taxonomic surveys, phylogenetic reconstruction methods, haplotype analysis, and similarity tests, this study has aimed to, 1) summarize the knowledge on the occurrence of corticioids and polypores in the Caucasus region, 2) resolve the phylogenetic relationships of selected, resupinate wood-inhabiting basidiomycetes for which the Caucasus region is currently the mere, or one of the noteworthy areas of distribution, and, 3) assess the similarity of Caucasian corticioid fungi to those of Europe and important areas in the Northern Hemisphere, and to examine the significance of the Caucasus region as a glacial refugium for these fungi. This study provides the first catalogue of corticioids and polypores (635 species) occurring in the Caucasus region. The phylogeny and systematics of the Caucasian resupinate taxa in focus has been resolved and the usefulness of some morphological characters has been re-evaluated. In this context, four new genera and two new species were described and five new combinations were proposed, two of which were supplemented with modern descriptions. The species composition of corticioids in the Caucasus region is found to be distinctly more similar to Europe and North America than to East Asia and India. The highest molecular diversity and within population pairwise distance for Peniophorella praetermissa has been detected in the Caucasus and East Asia, with the isolates of the latter area being highly divergent from the European ones. This, and the assignment of root haplotype to the Caucasian isolates in a haplotype network for Phlebia tuberucalta and P. livida, call attention to the role of the Caucasus region in shaping the current mycota of Europe.

Five-kilowatt wood gasifier technology: Evolution and field experience

Various elements of an efficient and reliable 5k W wood gasifier system developed over the last ten years are described. The good performance obtained from the system is related to the careful design of its components and sub-systems. Results from extensive testing of gasifier prototypes at two national centres are discussed along with the experience gained in the field from their use at more than one hundred and fifty locations spread over five states in the country. Issues related to acceptance of the technology are also included. Improvements in design to extend the life, to reduce the cost, and to reduce the number of components are also discussed. A few variants of the design to meet the specific requirements of water pumping, power generation and to exploit specific site characteristics are presented.

Dimensionality of quality from a customer perspective in the wood industry

The research analyzes product quality from a customer perspective in the case of the wood products industry. Of specific interest is to understand better how environmental quality is perceived from a customer perspective. The empirical material used comprises four data-sets from Finland, Germany and the UK, collected during 1992 2004. The methods consist of a set of quantitative statistical analyses. The results indicate that perceived quality from a customer perspective can be presented using a multidimensional and hierarchical construct with tangible and intangible dimensions, that is common to different markets and products. This applies in the case of wood products but also more generally at least for some other construction materials. For wood products, tangible product quality has two main sub-dimensions: technical quality and appearance. For product intangibles, a few main quality dimensions seem be detectable: Quality of intangibles related to the physical product, such as environmental issues and product-related information, supplier-related characteristics, and service and sales personnel behavior. Environmental quality and information are often perceived as being inter-related. Technical performance and appearance are the most important considerations for customers in the case of wood products. Organizational customers in particular also clearly consider certain intangible quality dimensions to be important, such as service and supplier reliability. The high technical quality may be considered as a license to operate , but product appearance and intangible quality provide potential for differentiation for attracting certain market segments. Intangible quality issues are those where Nordic suppliers underperform in comparison to their Central-European competitors on the important German markets. Environmental quality may not have been used to its full extent to attract customers. One possibility is to increase the availability of the environment-related information, or to develop environment-related product characteristics to also provide some individual benefits. Information technology provides clear potential to facilitate information-based quality improvements, which was clearly recognized by Finnish forest industry already in the early 1990s. The results indeed indicate that wood products markets are segmented with regard to quality demands

Studies on LDPE-cyanoethylated lignocellulosics blends using epoxy functionalized LDPE as compatibilizer

Rubberwood flour and cellulose have been plasticized by cyanoethylation and then blended with low-density polyethylene (LDPE). A small quantity of epoxy functionalized polyethylene i.e., polyethylene-co-glycidyl methacrylate (PEGMA) has been added to further enhance the mechanical properties. The mechanical properties were measured according to the standard ASTM methods. SEM analysis was performed for both fractured and unfractured blend specimens. The mechanical properties were improved by the addition of PEGMA compatibilizer. LDPE blends with cyanoethylated wood flour (CYWF) showed higher tensile strength and modulus than cyanoethylated cellulose CYC-LDPE blends. However CYC-LDPE blends exhibited higher relative elongation at break values as compared with the former. The TGA analysis showed lowering of thermal stability as the filler content is increased and degradation temperature of LDPE is shifted slightly to lower temperature. DSC analysis showed loss of crystallinity for the LDPE phase as the filler content is increased for both types of blends. Dielectric properties of the blends were similar to LDPE, but were lowered on adding PEGMA. (c) 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Pragmatismi poliittisena filosofiana. Yksilö ja yhteisö John Deweyn ajttelussa

John Dewey (1859-1952) oli yhdysvaltalainen filosofi, pedagogi ja julkinen keskustelija, jonka ajattelu on merkittävästi vaikuttanut pragmatismina tunnetun filosofisen suuntauksen kehittymiseen. Tässä Pro gradu -tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Devveyn poliittista filosofiaa ja ajattelua. Tarkoituksena on selvitellä, millaista on Devveyn poliittinen filosofia ja voiko hänen pragmatistinen poliittinen filosofiansa tarjota jotain mielenkiintoista myös tämän päivän poliittisen filosofian kentälle. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan Devveyn esittämää kritiikkiä klassista liberalismia ja individualismia kohtaan, Devveyn omaa poliittisen filosofian projektia sekä sen kohtaama kritiikkiä ja arvioidaan Devveyn poliittista filosofiaa yleisesti. Tarkastelun kohteena ovat muun muassa Devveyn käsitykset yksilöstä, valtiosta, demokratiasta, vallasta ja tiedosta. Ensisijaisena lähteenä tutkielmassa on Devveyn koottujen teosten sarja vuosilta 1882-1953, ennen kaikkea 1920-30-lukujen tuotanto. Lisäksi lähteenä on useita tuoreita artikkeleita sekä kommentaareja. Keskeisin löytö tutkielmassa on, että Devveyn poliittisen filosofian oleellinen piirre on "anti-essentialismi", eli huomion siirtäminen pois jostain oletetuista yksilöiden ja ryhmien olemuksista tai sisäisestä luonnosta niiden välisiin suhteisiin ja näiden ilmauksiin. Tähän liittyen Devveyn poliittisen filosofian keskeiseksi lähtökohdaksi osoittautuu perinteisen yksilö-yhteisö jaottelun kyseenalaistaminen. Tutkielma tarjoaa laajan katsauksen Devveyn poliittiseen ajatteluun sekä pragmatistiseen poliittiseen filosofiaan.

Wood procurement in the pressure of change.

Linear optimization model was used to calculate seven wood procurement scenarios for years 1990, 2000 and 2010. Productivity and cost functions for seven cutting, five terrain transport, three long distance transport and various work supervision and scaling methods were calculated from available work study reports. All method's base on Nordic cut to length system. Finland was divided in three parts for description of harvesting conditions. Twenty imaginary wood processing points and their wood procurement areas were created for these areas. The procurement systems, which consist of the harvesting conditions and work productivity functions, were described as a simulation model. In the LP-model the wood procurement system has to fulfil the volume and wood assortment requirements of processing points by minimizing the procurement cost. The model consists of 862 variables and 560 restrictions. Results show that it is economical to increase the mechanical work in harvesting. Cost increment alternatives effect only little on profitability of manual work. The areas of later thinnings and seed tree- and shelter wood cuttings increase on cost of first thinnings. In mechanized work one method, 10-tonne one grip harvester and forwarder, is gaining advantage among other methods. Working hours of forwarder are decreasing opposite to the harvester. There is only little need to increase the number of harvesters and trucks or their drivers from today's level. Quite large fluctuations in level of procurement and cost can be handled by constant number of machines, by alternating the number of season workers and by driving machines in two shifts. It is possible, if some environmental problems of large scale summer time harvesting can be solved.

Wood and fiber properties of Norway spruce and its suitability for thermomechanical pulping.

In the first part of the study, the selected wood and fiber properties were investigated in terms of their occurrence and variation in wood, as well as their relevance from the perspective of thermomechanical pulping process and related end-products. It was concluded that the most important factors were the fiber dimensions, juvenile wood content, and in some cases, the content of heartwood being associated with extremely dry wood with low permeability in spruce. With respect to the above properties, the following three pulpwood assortments of which pulping potential was assumed to vary were formed: wood from regeneration cuttings, first-thinnings wood, and sawmill chips. In the experimental part of the study the average wood and fiber characteristics and their variation were determined for each raw material group prior to pulping. Subsequently, each assortment - equaling about 1500 m3 roundwood - was pulped separately for a 24 h period, at constant process conditions. The properties of obtained newsgrade thermomechanical pulps were then determined. Thermomechanical pulping (TMP) from sawmill chips had the highest proportion of long fibers, smallest proportion of fines, and had generally the coarsest and longest fibers. TMP from first-thinnings wood was just the opposite, whereas that from regeneration cuttings fell in between the above two extremes. High proportion of dry heartwood in wood originating from regeneration cuttings produced a slightly elevated shives content. However, no differences were found in pulp specific energy consumption. The obtained pulp tear index was clearly best in TMP made from sawmill chips and poorest in pulp from first-thinnings wood, which had generally inferior strength properties. No dramatical differences in any of the strength properties were found between pulp from sawmill residual wood and regeneration cuttings. Pulp optical properties were superior in TMP from first-thinnings. Unexpectedly, no noticeable differences, which could be explained with fiber morphology, were found in sheet density, bulk, air permeance or roughness between the three pulps. The most important wood quality factors in this study were the fiber length, fiber cross-sectional dimensions and percentage juvenile wood. Differences found in the quality of TMP manufactured from the above spruce assortments suggest that they could be segregated and pulped separately to obtain specific product characteristics, i.e., for instance tailor-made end-products, and to minimize unnecessary variation in the raw material quality, and hence, pulp quality.

Inhibitory effects of wood extracts on the spoilage flora of marinated poultry meat

Polyphenolic compounds occurring naturally in knotwood of plants are known to have antimicrobial effects. The knots (i.e. the branch bases inside tree stems) and outer branches in pine trees contain a remarkably high concentration of phenolic stilbenes, while lignans are the major phenolic constituents of spruce knots. Large amount of these phenolic compounds can be extracted from wood knots at pulp and paper mills where their presence is undesirable. In Finland, marinating of broiler meat is done not only to increase or add value to the meat, but also to enhance the safety and shelf-life. These products are usually packed under a modified atmosphere for further protection against spoilage microorganisms. However, studies have revealed that addition of marinades to poultry products do not have an inhibitory effect on either some psychrotrophic anaerobic bacteria, such as Brochothrix thermosphacta or lactic acid bacteria associated with spoilage. Also, the activity of pathogenic Campylobacter jejuni is not affected by marinating. The objective of this study was to investigate the inhibitory and lethal activities of extracts from spruce (Picea spp.) and pine (Pinus spp.) knotwood and outer branches that are dissolved in ethanol against the spoilage microorganisms in modified atmosphere packaged marinated broiler products. Modified atmosphere packaged broiler products were separately inoculated with ‘normal’ marinades, marinades with 70% ethanol, marinades with a mixture of spruce and pine extracts dissolved in 70% ethanol or mixture of spruce and pine extracts in powder form. The bacterial colony forming units per gram obtained from each of the samples were analysed on de Man Rogosa and Sharpe agar at days 1, 6, 12 and 15. The results showed that there were significant differences in bacterial colony forming units per gram (P <0.05) between packages with ‘normal’ marinades and packages with extracts added to their marinades on the 12th and 15th day. It can be concluded that the addition of extracts from spruce and pine knotwood to marinades significantly retarded growth of spoilage microorganisms during the 15 day test period. However further research is warranted to characterise and establish the safety and suitability of the compound(s) in spruce and pine knotwood extracts that are responsible for inhibitory or lethal activity against the microbes that may be present in marinated poultry meat.