Estrutura das assembleias de peixes de igarapés de terra firme da bacia do rio Machado/RO

No presente estudo foi avaliada (i) a estrutura das assembleias de peixes de igarapés de terra-firme ao longo do contínuo fluvial do rio Machado, na bacia do rio Amazonas, (ii) os efeitos de alterações ambientais sobre as assembleias de peixes de igarapés através de comparações entre áreas íntegras (em uma Unidade de conservação) e alteradas por ação antrópica na bacia hidrográfica do rio Machado, e (iii) a organização espacial das assembleias de peixes de tributários de baixa ordem na bacia do rio Machado através da avaliação dos padrões de co-ocorrência das espécies, identificando os possíveis fatores estruturadores dessas assembleias e através de uma Análise de Parcimônia de Endemismo (PAE). As amostragens foram realizadas entre os meses de agosto e setembro de 2011, junho e agosto de 2012 e julho de 2013, totalizando 81 igarapés. Os peixes foram coletados durante uma hora em um trecho de 80 metros, com o auxilio de uma rede de mão (picaré) e um puçá. Para o capítulo 1, um maior número de indivíduos e espécies foram encontradas no trecho baixo quando comparado o trecho alto da bacia. Todavia, somente foram encontradas diferenças significativas entre o trecho alto e os trechos médio e baixo. Assim, rejeitamos nossa hipótese de diferenças entre os trechos analisados, onde esperávamos que a riqueza e abundância de espécies de igarapés aumentaria no gradiente longitudinal cabeceira-foz do rio Machado. Contudo, apesar da não confirmação da hipótese, um padrão de adição e substituição de espécies foi observado do trecho alto para o médio, e um padrão de substituição de espécies foi observado do trecho médio para o baixo. Referente ao capítulo 2, apontamos que apesar da área desflorestada não apresentar diferenças marcantes na riqueza de espécies e abundância, quando comparada com a área com igarapés conservados, esta (área desflorestada) apresentou elevada similaridade a nível composicional entre os igarapés amostrados (menor diversidade beta), diferentemente dos igarapés localizados na Rebio, que apresentaram maior número de espécies com hábitos mais especializados. Igarapés desflorestados apresentaram homogeneização da sua ictiofauna em comparação com igarapés providos de mata ripária, refletindo a maior homogeneização estrutural encontrada em igarapés com baixo percentual de cobertura vegetal. Dessa forma, a retirada da cobertura vegetal em igarapés com comunidades mais diversificads e especializadas, como os da Rebio Jaru, promoveria a homogeneização das espécies acarretando a perda destas, assim como a substituição destas por espécies tolerantes a condições ambientais comuns a ambientes alterados. Para o capítulo 3, embora não tenhamos encontrado áreas de endemismo na bacia analisada, apontamos que a influência da estrutura física dos igarapés sobre a composição de espécies é o principal fator modulador da estruturação da assembleia de peixes. Todavia, tal fator não se aplica a estruturação da assembleia baseada na coocorrência de espécies, haja vista que, a análise de toda a bacia com diferentes níveis de uso de solo, apresentou um padrão organizacional não aleatório

Análise morfométrica das estruturas maxilo-mandibulares de indivíduos pré-colombianos e contemporâneos da Costa Central do Peru

O objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar morfometricamente as modificações ocorridas ao longo de 500 anos nas estruturas maxilo-mandibulares de indivíduos da Costa Central do Peru. Foram utilizadas telerradiografias laterais de 30 crânios secos, sem deformidades esqueléticas e em normoclusão, do período Pré-colombiano (grupo Pré-colombiano) e de 30 peruanos nativos contemporâneos, com características esqueléticas e oclusais semelhantes, provenientes da mesma região geográfica (grupo Contemporâneo). Estas telerradiografias foram digitalizadas e 14 pontos cefalométricos foram marcados e utilizados como marcos anatômicos homólogos para a análise morfométrica. O tamanho do centróide, a forma e a alometria foram comparados entre os grupos para a amostra total, para homens e para mulheres, pelos testes de one-way ANOVA, função discriminante e regressão multivariada, respectivamente. As mesmas avaliações foram realizadas para homens e mulheres do mesmo grupo. O tamanho do centróide foi significativamente maior para o grupo Contemporâneo tanto para a amostra total, quanto para homens e mulheres, demonstrando que as estruturas maxilo-mandibulares dos indivíduos contemporâneos é maior do que de seus ancestrais. Quando homens e mulheres foram comparados intra-grupos o tamanho do centróide foi significativamente maior para os homens do grupo Contemporâneo, com a mesma tendência para os homens pré-colombianos, porém sem significância estatística. Observou-se diferenças significativas entre os grupos para a forma das estruturas maxilo-mandibulares indicando que ao longo do tempo houve um deslocamento posterior da região da pré-maxila e um deslocamento considerável para cima e para trás da apófise coronóide, uma abertura do ângulo na região goníaca e um alongamento no sentido vertical da região da sínfise mandibular. Essas mudanças morfológicas foram mais evidentes nas mulheres do que nos homens, parecendo haver maior efeito das tendências seculares nas mulheres. Não houve diferenças morfológicas entre homens e mulheres quando comparados intra-grupos, demonstrando que os resultados observados não foram influenciados pelo dimorfismo sexual. As diferenças de tamanho existentes intra-grupos foram responsáveis por apenas 6% das diferenças de forma, e portanto não há efeito causal do tamanho sobre as diferenças de forma observadas entre os grupos. Pode-se concluir que as diferenças morfológicas das estruturas maxilo-mandibulares encontradas neste estudo sugerem mudanças nas condições ambientais da população da Costa Central do Peru ao longo de 500 anos e podem contribuir para o melhor esclarecimento dos fatores etiológicos das más oclusões.

Produção de IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-8 por fibroblastos estimulados por cimentos endodônticos e submetidos à terapia laser de baixa potência

O sucesso do tratamento endodôntico depende da cuidadosa realização de todas as suas fases, terminando com uma obturação tridimensional que alcance todo o sistema de canais radiculares. Desta forma, os materiais obturadores, ou as substâncias liberadas, entrarão em contato com os tecidos perirradiculares, o que poderá influenciar a resposta inflamatória e o processo de reparo. A terapia laser de baixa potência (TLBP) tem sido estudada quanto à sua ação anti-inflamatória, favorecendo o reparo. O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a produção das citocinas IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-8 por fibroblastos de gengiva humana (linhagem FMM1) como resposta à presença dos extratos dos cimentos endodônticos AH Plus, MTA Fillapex e EndoSequence BC Sealer, bem como a eficácia da TLBP, neste modelo. Para isto, extratos destes cimentos, recém-manipulados e após 24 h do endurecimento, foram preparados em meio de cultura DMEM fresco, conforme as normas ISO 10993-12. Inicialmente, a citotoxicidade dos cimentos foi avaliada, após a interação das células com a diluição seriada destes extratos (1:1 a 1:16), por meio do ensaio MTT. Para a análise da produção de citocinas, 106 células por poço foram cultivadas em placas de cultura de 24 poços, para a interação com os extratos dos cimentos, na diluição 1:4. Estabeleceram-se os grupos não irradiado e irradiado. No grupo irradiado, as culturas celulares receberam duas irradiações do laser InGaAlP (660 nm, 30 mW, 5 J/cm2 e área do feixe de 0,028 cm2), com intervalo de 12 h. O grupo não irradiado foi submetido às mesmas condições ambientais que o irradiado. Os sobrenadantes das culturas foram coletados, centrifugados, aliquotados e armazenados congelados, para a posterior análise pelo ensaio de ELISA. Todos os dados obtidos (médias erro padrão) foram tratados estatisticamente por ANOVA one-way, complementado pelo teste de Tuckey e ANOVA two-way, com correção de Bonferroni (p< 0,05). A citotoxicidade dos cimentos AH Plus e EndoSequence BC Sealer revelou-se tempo/concentração-dependente, enquanto a do MTA Fillapex mostrou-se concentração-dependente. Os cimentos endodônticos induziram a produção das citocinas IL-1β, IL-6 e IL-8 pelos fibroblastos, sem diferença significativa com os controles (p> 0,05). Somente o LPS de E. coli induziu a secreção de IL-8, com diferença estatística (p< 0,05). A TLBP não foi capaz de modular a produção das citocinas em questão, significativamente.

Filogeografia e evolução molecular de lagostas sapateiras (Scyllarides spp.) da América do Sul

Nos últimos anos, duas espécies de lagostas sapateiras, Scyllarides brasiliensis e S. deceptor, vêm se destacando nos desembarques pesqueiros de lagostas do Atlântico Sul Ocidental. Para espécies comercialmente importantes, o desenvolvimento de estudos que permitam conhecer a variabilidade e entender a dinâmica populacional é fundamental. Assim, o objetivo do primeiro capítulo desta tese foi avaliar a diversidade genética e a estrutura populacional dessas duas lagostas ao longo de aprox. 2.800 km da costa da América do Sul. Para as análises, foram empregados marcadores mitocondriais (citocromo oxidase I: COI; e a região controle: RC) e marcadores nucleares (13 loci de microssatélites desenvolvidos nesta tese). As duas espécies apresentaram altos níveis de variabilidade (S. deceptor: N = 200, mtDNA: h > 0,841, π > 0,005; microssatélites: He = 0,685; S. brasiliensis: N = 211, He = 0,554), distribuídos homogeneamente entre as localidades (S. deceptor: ΦST < -0,004, ΦCT < 0,016, FST global = 0,001, Dest global = 0,003, FCT < 0,002, P > 0,05, K = 1; S. brasiliensis: FST global = 0,004, Dest global = 0,001, FCT < 0,004, P > 0,05, K = 1). A ausência de estruturação nas duas espécies pode estar relacionada a características biológicas que promovem a conectividade entre localidades geograficamente distantes, como alta fecundidade e alto potencial de dispersão das larvas planctônicas. Além disso, os dados mitocondriais sugerem que a história demográfica de S. deceptor foi marcada por eventos de expansão populacionais e geográficos possivelmente relacionados às condições ambientais favoráveis dos episódios interglaciais do Pleistoceno Médio-Tardio. Diversos estudos têm mostrado que os fenômenos de inserção de regiões mitocondriais no DNA nuclear (NuMts) e heteroplasmia limitam a correta amplificação e identificação dos marcadores mitocondriais. Em estudos filogenéticos e de genética de populações, a presença inadvertida de sequências de diversas origens viola o principio de ortologia, o que pode resultar em inferências evolutivas erradas. Assim, o objetivo do segundo capítulo desta tese foi identificar e caracterizar os possíveis NuMts e sequências heteroplásmicas de três regiões mitocondriais (COI, RC e o gene da subunidade maior do RNA ribossomal: 16S) em quatro espécies do gênero Scyllarides (S. aequinoctialis, S. brasiliensis, S. deceptor e S. delfosi). A clonagem e sequenciamento de extratos de DNA genômico e DNA enriquecido com mtDNA revelaram que os genomas destas espécies podem exibir NuMts (que divergem entre 0,6 e 17,6% do mtDNA) e heteroplasmia (que divergem < 0,2% do mtDNA prevalente). Os NuMts surgiram possivelmente de vários eventos independentes de integração ao núcleo ao longo da história evolutiva do gênero Scyllarides. Dependendo do seu grau de similaridade com o mtDNA, a presença de NuMts nas análises filogenéticas no nível de gênero pode causar superestimativa do número de espécies e alterações nos comprimentos dos ramos e nas relações filogenéticas entre espécies.

Avaliação ambiental integrada para licenciamento de operação de áreas de pesquisa (Loap) com plantas geneticamente modificadas: estudo de caso do mamão geneticamente modificado para resistência ao vírus da mancha anelar.

O Brasil possui oportunidades, competência, infra-estrutura institucional e legislação que permitem desenvolver a biotecnologia agropecuária com satisfatórias condições de biossegurança. A incorporação de construções genéticas para resistência a pragas e doenças, adaptação de variedades a condições ambientais adversas, com acréscimo de valor nutricional ou inclusão de características de valor farmacêutico, podem consolidar a posição do país na produção de grãos, fibras e oleaginosas de maior valor agregado. Ao lado dos estudos de segurança alimentar, são necessárias respostas que garantam a segurança de produtos geneticamente modificados para o meio ambiente. Para tanto, métodos científicos devem ser utilizados na construção de cenários que possibilitem determinar o alcance dos efeitos ambientais de organismos geneticamente modificados, com potencial de causar impacto ambiental negativo, antes mesmo que sejam realizados testes de campo. O estudo destas possíveis influências pode ser realizado empregando-se avaliações de impactos ambientais (AIAs), que definem-se como procedimentos para a previsão, a análise e a seleção de tecnologias, projetos e políticas de desenvolvimento, que minimizem alterações negativas da qualidade ambiental.

Ocorrência de árvores e arbustos de uso múltiplo em pastagens no Estado do Acre.

O objetivo principal deste trabalho é identificar as espécies de árvores e arbustos que ocorrem em pastagens, e obter informações acerca da composição florística e ocorrência de espécies, visando dados sobre dispersão e regeneração natural, sobrevivência, abundância, entre outros fatores, para subsidiar a tomada de decisões na pesquisa e formulação de sistemas silvipastoris sustentáveis para o Acre e Amazônia Ocidental. A hipótese é de que, com a identificação das espécies de árvores e arbustos que ocorrem em pastagens no Estado, será possível com esses dados selecionar as mais adaptadas às condições ambientais regionais, aliada ao estudo de visibilidade técnica e econômica para o estabelecimento de pesquisas e formulação de sistemas silvipastoris

Tecnologia de aplicação de agrotóxicos em cultivo protegido de tomate e pimentão.

Essa Circular Técnica tem como objetivos orientar produtores de tomate e pimentão quanto aos cuidados a serem adotados na aplicação de agrotóxicos nas culturas do tomate e do pimentão cultivados em ambiente protegido, auxiliar na escolha dos equipamentos de aplicação mais adequados e na realização de sua calibração, assim como orientar quanto às condições ambientais favoráveis para sua aplicação, sem colocar em risco a saúde do aplicador e dos consumidores. Além disso, visa orientar os olericultores a obter a máxima eficiência do agrotóxico, a fim de reduzir os custos com as aplicações.

Measurements of thermophysical properties of perfluorocarbons and ionic liquids

No presente trabalho propõe-se estudar a tensão superficial de vários perfluorocarbonetos lineares, cíclicos, aromáticos e [alfa]-substituídos bem como líquidos iónicos com o catião imidazolium em comum. Apesar do seu interesse inerente, informação sobre esta propriedade para os compostos seleccionados é escassa e quando disponível apresenta discrepâncias consideráveis entre si. As medições foram realizadas no intervalo de temperaturas (283 to 353) K usando o método do anel de Du Noüy. Para os fluorocarbonetos, os dados experimentais demonstram que a estrutura molecular é o factor primordial no comportamento da superfície uma vez que os fluorocarbonetos aromáticos apresentam a tensão superficial mais elevada, seguida pelos fluorocarbonetos cíclicos e substituídos. Os perfluorocarbonetos lineares apresentam os menores valores de tensão superficial, aumentando ligeiramente com o aumento do número de carbonos. Os líquidos iónicos estudados foram seleccionados com o objectivo de fornecerem um estudo compreensivo sobre a influência do tamanho da cadeia alquílica do catião, o número de substituições no catião e a influência do anião. A influência do conteúdo de água na tensão superficial foi estudada em função da temperatura e da fracção molar de água para o liquido iónico mais hidrofóbico, [omim][PF6], e para o mais higroscópico, [bmim][PF6]. As funções termodinâmicas de superfície, como a entropia e entalpia de superfície, foram derivadas a partir da dependência da tensão superficial com a temperatura. Os dados obtidos para o fluorocarbonetos foram comparados com a correlação proposta por Faizullin, apresentando um desvio inferior a 4 % e demonstrando a sua aplicabilidade para com esta classe de compostos. A metodologia adoptada neste trabalho requer o conhecimento das densidades dos compostos de modo a aplicar a necessária correcção hidrostática. Contudo, para os líquidos iónicos esta informação é limitada ou mesmo inexistente. Por este motivo realizaram-se medições de densidade em função da pressão (0.10 < p/MPa < 10.0) e da temperatura (293.15 < T/K < 393.15). Desta dependência, as propriedades termodinâmicas, tais como compressibilidade isotérmica, expansividade isobárica, coeficiente térmico da pressão e dependência da capacidade calorífica com a pressão foram investigadas. A influência do teor de água na densidade foi também estudada para o líquido iónico mais hidrofóbico, [omim][PF6]. Um modelo simples de volume-ideal foi aplicado de forma preditiva para os volumes molares dos líquidos iónicos, em condições ambientais, descrevendo bem os dados experimentais. ABSTRACT: This work aims at studying the surface tension of some linear, cyclic, aromatic, [alfa]-substituted perfluorocarbons and imidazolium based ionic liquids. Despite its fundamental interest, information about this property for these compounds is scarce and the available data present strong discrepancies among each other. The measurements were carried out in the temperature range (283 to 353) K with the Du Noüy ring method. For the fluorocarbons, the analysis of the experimental data shows that the molecular structure is the main factor in the surface since the aromatic fluorocompounds present the highest surface tensions, followed by the cyclic and substituted fluorocompounds. The linear n-perfluoroalkanes exhibit the lowest surface tension values, slightly increasing with the carbon number. The set of selected ionic liquids was chosen to provide a comprehensive study of the influence of the cation alkyl chain length, the number of cation substitutions and the anion on the properties under study. The influence of water content in the surface tension was studied for several ILs as a function of the temperature as well as a function of water mole fraction, for the most hydrophobic IL investigated, [omim][PF6], and one hygroscopic IL, [bmim][PF6]. The surface thermodynamic functions such as surface entropy and enthalpy were derived from the temperature dependence of the surface tension values. The perfluorocarbons experimental data were compared against the Faizullin correlation, and it is shown that this correlation describes the measured surface tensions with deviations inferior to 4 %. The methodology adopted in this work requires the knowledge of the densities of the compounds under study in order to apply an hydrostatic correction. However, for ionic liquids these information is scarse and in some cases unavailable. Therefore, experimental measurements of the pressure (0.10 < p/MPa < 10.0) and temperature (293.15 < T/K < 393.15) dependence of the density and derived thermodynamic properties, such as the isothermal compressibility, the isobaric expansivity, the thermal pressure coefficient, and the pressure dependence of the heat capacity of several imidazolium-based ionic were determined. The influence of water content in the density was also studied for the most hydrophobic IL used, [omim][PF6]. A simple ideal-volume model was employed for the prediction of the imidazolium molar volumes at ambient conditions, which proved to agree well with the experimental results.

Molecular reconstruction of a genetic code alteration

The genetic code establishes the rules that govern gene translation into proteins. It was established more than 3.5 billion years ago and it is one of the most conserved features of life. Despite this, several alterations to the standard genetic code have been discovered in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, namely in the fungal CTG clade where a unique seryl transfer RNA (tRNACAG Ser) decodes leucine CUG codons as serine. This tRNACAG Ser appeared 272±25 million years ago through insertion of an adenosine in the middle position of the anticodon of a tRNACGA Ser gene, which changed its anticodon from 5´-CGA-3´ to 5´-CAG-3´. This most dramatic genetic event restructured the proteome of the CTG clade species, but it is not yet clear how and why such deleterious genetic event was selected and became fixed in those fungal genomes. In this study we have attempted to shed new light on the evolution of this fungal genetic code alteration by reconstructing its evolutionary pathway in vivo in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. For this, we have expressed wild type and mutant versions of the C. albicans tRNACGA Ser gene into S. cerevisiae and evaluated the impact of the mutant tRNACGA Ser on fitness, tRNA stability, translation efficiency and aminoacylation kinetics. Our data demonstrate that these mutants are expressed and misincorporate Ser at CUGs, but their expression is repressed through an unknown molecular mechanism. We further demonstrate, using in vivo forced evolution methodologies, that the tRNACAG Ser can be easily inactivated through natural mutations that prevent its recognition by the seryl-tRNA synthetase. The overall data show that repression of expression of the mistranslating tRNACAG Ser played a critical role on the evolution of CUG reassignment from Leu to Ser. In order to better understand the evolution of natural genetic code alterations, we have also engineered partial reassignment of various codons in yeast. The data confirmed that genetic code ambiguity affects fitness, induces protein aggregation, interferes with the cell cycle and results in nuclear and morphologic alterations, genome instability and gene expression deregulation. Interestingly, it also generates phenotypic variability and phenotypes that confer growth advantages in certain environmental conditions. This study provides strong evidence for direct and critical roles of the environment on the evolution of genetic code alterations.

Systematics and evolution of coastal and deepwater Hydrozoa from the NE Atlantic

The study of the Portuguese Hydrozoa fauna has been abandoned for more than half a century, except for the Azores archipelago. One of the main aims of this Ph.D. project was to contribute new hydrozoan records leading to a more accurate perception of the actual hydrozoan diversity found in Portuguese waters, including the archipelagos of Azores and Madeira, and neighbouring geographical areas, for habitats ranging from the deep sea to the intertidal. Shallow water hydroids from several Portuguese marine regions (including the Gorringe Bank) were sampled by scuba-diving. Deep-water hydroids, from the Azores, Madeira, Gulf of Cadiz and Alboran Sea, were collected by researchers of different institutions during several oceanographic campaigns. Occasional hydroid sampling by scuba-diving was performed in the UK, Malta and Spain. Over 300 hydroid species were identified and about 600 sequences of the hydrozoan ‘DNA barcode’ 16S mRNA were generated. The families Sertulariidae, Plumulariidae, Lafoeidae, Hebellidae, Aglaopheniidae, Campanulinidae, Halopterididae, Kirchenpaueriidae, Haleciidae and Eudendriidae, were studied in greater detail. About 350 16S sequences were generated for these taxa, allowing phylogenetic, phylogeographic and evolutionary inferences, and also more accurate taxonomic identifications. Phylogenetic analyses integrated molecular and morphological characters. Subsequent results revealed: particularly high levels of cryptic biodiversity, polyphyly in many taxonomic groups, pairs of species that were synonymous, the identity of several varieties as valid species, and highlighted phylogeographic associations of hydroids in deep and shallow-water areas of the NE Atlantic and W Mediterranean. It was proved that many (but not all) marine hydroid species with supposedly widespread vertical and/or horizontal geographical distributions, correspond in fact to complexes of cryptic taxa. This study further revealed that, in the NE Atlantic, shallow environments sustain higher hydrozoan diversity and abundance, but the importance of bathyal habitats as a source of phylogenetic diversity was also revealed. The Azorean seamounts were shown to be particularly important in the segregation of populations of hydroids with reduced dispersive potential. The bathyal habitats of the Gulf of Cadiz proved to harbour a considerably high number of cryptic species, which may mainly be a consequence of habitat heterogeneity and convergence of various water masses in the Gulf. The main causes proposed for speciation and population divergence of hydroids were: species population size, dispersal mechanisms and plasticity to inhabit different environmental conditions, but also the influence of oceanic currents (and its properties), habitat heterogeneity, climate change and continental drift. Higher phylogenetic resolution obtained for the family Plumulariidae revealed particularly that glacial cycles likely facilitated population divergence, ultimately speciation, and also faunal evolutionary transitions from deep to shallow waters.

Accidental release of hazardous gases: modelling and assessing risk

The renewed concern in assessing risks and consequences from technological hazards in industrial and urban areas continues emphasizing the development of local-scale consequence analysis (CA) modelling tools able to predict shortterm pollution episodes and exposure effects on humans and the environment in case of accident with hazardous gases (hazmat). In this context, the main objective of this thesis is the development and validation of the EFfects of Released Hazardous gAses (EFRHA) model. This modelling tool is designed to simulate the outflow and atmospheric dispersion of heavy and passive hazmat gases in complex and build-up areas, and to estimate the exposure consequences of short-term pollution episodes in accordance to regulatory/safety threshold limits. Five main modules comprising up-to-date methods constitute the model: meteorological, terrain, source term, dispersion, and effects modules. Different initial physical states accident scenarios can be examined. Considered the main core of the developed tool, the dispersion module comprises a shallow layer modelling approach capable to account the main influence of obstacles during the hazmat gas dispersion phenomena. Model validation includes qualitative and quantitative analyses of main outputs by the comparison of modelled results against measurements and/or modelled databases. The preliminary analysis of meteorological and source term modules against modelled outputs from extensively validated models shows the consistent description of ambient conditions and the variation of the hazmat gas release. Dispersion is compared against measurements observations in obstructed and unobstructed areas for different release and dispersion scenarios. From the performance validation exercise, acceptable agreement was obtained, showing the reasonable numerical representation of measured features. In general, quality metrics are within or close to the acceptance limits recommended for ‘non-CFD models’, demonstrating its capability to reasonably predict hazmat gases accidental release and atmospheric dispersion in industrial and urban areas. EFRHA model was also applied to a particular case study, the Estarreja Chemical Complex (ECC), for a set of accidental release scenarios within a CA scope. The results show the magnitude of potential effects on the surrounding populated area and influence of the type of accident and the environment on the main outputs. Overall the present thesis shows that EFRHA model can be used as a straightforward tool to support CA studies in the scope of training and planning, but also, to support decision and emergency response in case of hazmat gases accidental release in industrial and built-up areas.

Contribution of biomass combustion to air pollutant emissions

In Portugal, it was estimated that around 1.95 Mton/year of wood is used in residential wood burning for heating and cooking. Additionally, in the last decades, burnt forest area has also been increasing. These combustions result in high levels of toxic air pollutants and a large perturbation of atmospheric chemistry, interfere with climate and have adverse effects on health. Accurate quantification of the amounts of trace gases and particulate matter emitted from residential wood burning, agriculture and garden waste burning and forest fires on a regional and global basis is essential for various purposes, including: the investigation of several atmospheric processes, the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions, and quantification of the air pollution sources that affect human health at regional scales. In Southern Europe, data on detailed emission factors from biomass burning are rather inexistent. Emission inventories and source apportionment, photochemical and climate change models use default values obtained for US and Northern Europe biofuels. Thus, it is desirable to use more specific locally available data. The objective of this study is to characterise and quantify the contribution of biomass combustion sources to atmospheric trace gases and aerosol concentrations more representative of the national reality. Laboratory (residential wood combustion) and field (agriculture/garden waste burning and experimental wildland fires) sampling experiments were carried out. In the laboratory, after the selection of the most representative wood species and combustion equipment in Portugal, a sampling program to determine gaseous and particulate matter emission rates was set up, including organic and inorganic aerosol composition. In the field, the smoke plumes from agriculture/garden waste and experimental wildland fires were sampled. The results of this study show that the combustion equipment and biofuel type used have an important role in the emission levels and composition. Significant differences between the use of traditional combustion equipment versus modern equipments were also observed. These differences are due to higher combustion efficiency of modern equipment, reflecting the smallest amount of particulate matter, organic carbon and carbon monoxide released. With regard to experimental wildland fires in shrub dominated areas, it was observed that the largest organic fraction in the samples studied was mainly composed by vegetation pyrolysis products. The major organic components in the smoke samples were pyrolysates of vegetation cuticles, mainly comprising steradienes and sterol derivatives, carbohydrates from the breakdown of cellulose, aliphatic lipids from vegetation waxes and methoxyphenols from the lignin thermal degradation. Despite being a banned practice in our country, agriculture/garden waste burning is actually quite common. To assess the particulate matter composition, the smoke from three different agriculture/garden residues have been sampled into 3 different size fractions (PM2.5, PM2.5-10 and PM>10). Despite distribution patterns of organic compounds in particulate matter varied among residues, the amounts of phenolics (polyphenol and guaiacyl derivatives) and organic acids were always predominant over other organic compounds in the organosoluble fraction of smoke. Among biomarkers, levoglucosan, β-sitosterol and phytol were detected in appreciable amounts in the smoke of all agriculture/garden residues. In addition, inositol may be considered as an eventual tracer for the smoke from potato haulm burning. It was shown that the prevailing ambient conditions (such as high humidity in the atmosphere) likely contributed to atmospheric processes (e.g. coagulation and hygroscopic growth), which influenced the particle size characteristics of the smoke tracers, shifting their distribution to larger diameters. An assessment of household biomass consumption was also made through a national scale survey. The information obtained with the survey combined with the databases on emission factors from the laboratory and field tests allowed us to estimate the pollutant amounts emitted in each Portuguese district. In addition to a likely contribution to the improvement of emission inventories, emission factors obtained for tracer compounds in this study can be applied in receptor models to assess the contribution of biomass burning to the levels of atmospheric aerosols and their constituents obtained in monitoring campaigns in Mediterranean Europe.

Analysis of the organic matter associated to sea salt : definition of potential molecular markers based on the volatile composition and presence of glycosidic derivatives and polysaccharides

Sea salt is a natural product obtained from the evaporation of seawater in saltpans due to the combined effect of wind and sunlight. Nowadays, there is a growing interest for protection and re-valorisation of saltpans intrinsically associated to the quality of sea salt that can be evaluated by its physico-chemical properties. These man-made systems can be located in different geographical areas presenting different environmental surroundings. During the crystallization process, organic compounds coming from these surroundings can be incorporated into sea salt crystals, influencing their final composition. The organic matter associated to sea salt arises from three main sources: algae, surrounding bacterial community, and anthropogenic activity. Based on the hypothesis that sea salt contains associated organic compounds that can be used as markers of the product, including saltpans surrounding environment, the aim of this PhD thesis was to identify these compounds. With this purpose, this work comprised: 1) a deep characterisation of the volatile composition of sea salt by headspace solid phase microextraction combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GCGC–ToFMS) methodology, in search of potential sea salt volatile markers; 2) the development of a methodology to isolate the polymeric material potentially present in sea salt, in amounts that allow its characterisation in terms of polysaccharides and protein; and 3) to explore the possible presence of triacylglycerides. The high chromatographic resolution and sensitivity of GC×GC–ToFMS enabled the separation and identification of a higher number of volatile compounds from sea salt, about three folds, compared to unidimentional chromatography (GC–qMS). The chromatographic contour plots obtained revealed the complexity of marine salt volatile composition and confirmed the relevance of GC×GC–ToFMS for this type of analysis. The structured bidimentional chromatographic profile arising from 1D volatility and 2D polarity was demonstrated, allowing more reliable identifications. Results obtained for analysis of salt from two locations in Aveiro and harvested over three years suggest the loss of volatile compounds along the time of storage of the salt. From Atlantic Ocean salts of seven different geographical origins, all produced in 2007, it was possible to identify a sub-set of ten compounds present in all salts, namely 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexanone, isophorone, ketoisophorone, β-ionone-5,6-epoxide, dihydroactinidiolide, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 3-hydroxy-2,4,4-trimethylpentyl 2-methylpropanoate, 2,4,4-trimethylpentane-1,3-diyl bis(2-methylpropanoate), and 2-ethyl-1-hexanol. These ten compounds were considered potential volatile markers of sea salt. Seven of these compounds are carotenoid-derived compounds, and the other three may result from the integration of compounds from anthropogenic activity as metabolites of marine organisms. The present PhD work also allowed the isolation and characterisation, for the first time, of polymeric material from sea salt, using 16 Atlantic Ocean salts. A dialysis-based methodology was developed to isolate the polymeric material from sea salt in amounts that allowed its characterisation. The median content of polymeric material isolated from the 16 salts was 144 mg per kg of salt, e.g. 0.014% (w/w). Mid-infrared spectroscopy and thermogravimetry revealed the main occurrence of sulfated polysaccharides, as well as the presence of protein in the polymeric material from sea salt. Sea salt polysaccharides were found to be rich in uronic acid residues (21 mol%), glucose (18), galactose (16), and fucose (13). Sulfate content represented a median of 45 mol%, being the median content of sulfated polysaccharides 461 mg/g of polymeric material, which accounted for 66 mg/kg of dry salt. Glycosidic linkage composition indicates that the main sugar residues that could carry one or more sulfate groups were identified as fucose and galactose. This fact allowed to infer that the polysaccharides from sea salt arise mainly from algae, due to their abundance and composition. The amino acid profile of the polymeric material from the 16 Atlantic Ocean salts showed as main residues, as medians, alanine (25 mol%), leucine (14), and valine (14), which are hydrophobic, being the median protein content 35 mg/g, i.e. 4,9 mg per kg of dry salt. Beside the occurrence of hydrophobic volatile compounds in sea salt, hydrophobic non-volatile compounds were also detected. Triacylglycerides were obtained from sea salt by soxhlet extraction with n-hexane. Fatty acid composition revealed palmitic acid as the major residue (43 mol%), followed by stearic (13), linolenic (13), oleic (12), and linoleic (9). Sea salt triacylglycerides median content was 1.5 mg per kg of dry salt. Both protein and triacylglycerides seem to arise from macro and microalgae, phytoplankton and cyanobacteria, due to their abundance and composition. Despite the variability resulting from saltpans surrounding environment, this PhD thesis allowed the identification of a sea salt characteristic organic compounds profile based on volatile compounds, polysaccharides, protein, and triacylglycerides.

Single and joint effects of natural and chemical stressors to the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus

Environmental contamination and climate changes constitute two of the most serious problems affecting soil ecosystems in agricultural fields. Agriculture is nowadays a highly optimized process that strongly relies on the application of multiple pesticides to reduce losses and increase yield production. Although constituting, per se, a serious problem to soil biota, pesticide mixtures can assume an even higher relevance in a context of unfavourable environmental conditions. Surprisingly, frameworks currently established for environmental risk assessments keep not considering environmental stressors, such as temperature, soil moisture or UV radiation, as factors liable to influence the susceptibility of organisms to pesticides, or pesticide mixtures, which is raising increasing apprehension regarding their adequacy to actually estimate the risks posed by these compounds to the environment. Albeit the higher attention received on the last few years, the influence of environmental stressors on the behaviour and toxicity of chemical mixtures remains still poorly understood. Aiming to contribute for this discussion, the main goal of the present thesis was to evaluate the single and joint effects of natural stressors and pesticides to the terrestrial isopod Porcellionides pruinosus. The first approach consisted on evaluating the effects of several abiotic factors (temperature, soil moisture and UV radiation) on the performance of P. pruinosus using several endpoints: survival, feeding parameters, locomotor activity and avoidance behaviour. Results showed that these stressors might indeed affect P. pruinosus at relevant environmental conditions, thus suggesting the relevance of their consideration in ecotoxicological assays. At next, a multiple biomarker approach was used to have a closer insight into the pathways of damage of UV radiation and a broad spectrum of processes showed to be involved (i.e. oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, energy). Furthermore, UV effects showed to vary with the environment medium and growth-stage. A similar biomarker approach was employed to assess the single and joint effects of the pesticides chlorpyrifos and mancozeb to P. pruinosus. Energy-related biomarkers showed to be the most differentiating parameters since age-classes seemed to respond differently to contamination stress and to have different metabolic costs associated. Finally, the influence of temperature and soil moisture on the toxicity of pesticide mixtures was evaluated using survival and feeding parameters as endpoints. Pesticide-induced mortality was found to be oppositely affected by temperature, either in single or mixture treatments. Whereas chlorpyrifos acute toxicity was raised under higher temperatures the toxicity of mancozeb was more prominent at lower temperatures. By the opposite, soil moisture showed no effects on the pesticide-induced mortality of isopods. Contrary to survival, both temperature and soil moisture showed to interact with pesticides to influence isopods’ feeding parameters. Nonetheless, was however the most common pattern. In brief, findings reported on this thesis demonstrated why the negligence of natural stressors, or multiple stressors in general, is not a good solution for risk assessment frameworks.

Barrier properties of poly(lactic acid) based films

In recent years, the search for a environmentally friendly products has increased. One of the major challenges has been the demand for biodegradable materials that can replace plastic. If a few decades ago, plastic replaced, for example, the ivory in billiard balls, and in other products, saving the lives of thousands elephants, nowadays a replacement for that plastic is being searched, to prevent the change of the environmental conditions, essential to life in harmonly with the fauna and flora that the human specie has, in recent years, destroyed. Plastic is a petroleum derivate, whose price has been growing exponentially, mainly due to the fact of beind a cheap material and also to enable the production of products that are essential to modern life. Therefore, the petrochemical era is going to come to an end and a new environmentally sustainable era, based on biodegradable materials from renewable sources, will follow. The change to green routes only will be possible with the support of the major companies, and the implementation of drastic governmental law. Poly(lactic acid), PLA, is produced from the lactose present in the corn or sugarcane and has been intensively studied in recent years because if some limitants properties required its extrusion are overcome, it has the potential to replace the traditional polymers. PLA have high brittleness, low toughness and low tensile elongation. In this work, natural antioxidant (alpha-tocopherol) and synthetics antioxidants (BHT ant TBHQ) were added to the PLA with the aim not only to improve their flexibility, but also to create an active packaging to extend the shelf life of the foods and improve the organoleptic properties by preventing food losses. The impact of the addition of antioxidants into the PLA films, in its mechanical, thermal and barrier properties were studied by FTIR, DSC, SEM, AFM, DMA, TGA, QCM and time-lag techniques.