The paradigm shift in realising the right to read : how ebook libraries are enabling in the university sector

Millions of people with print disabilities are denied the right to read. While some important efforts have been made to convert standard books to accessible formats and create accessible repositories, these have so far only addressed this crisis in an ad hoc way. This article argues that universally designed ebook libraries have the potential of substantially enabling persons with print disabilities. As a case study of what is possible, we analyse 12 academic ebook libraries to map their levels of accessibility. The positive results from this study indicate that universally designed ebooks are more than possible; they exist. While results are positive, however, we also found that most ebook libraries have some features that frustrate full accessibility, and some ebook libraries present critical barriers for people with disabilities. Based on these findings, we consider that some combination of private pressure and public law is both possible and necessary to advance the right-to-read cause. With access improving and recent advances in international law, now is the time to push for universal design and equality.

Submission to the Attorney-General's Department consultation on "Marrakesh Treaty options for implementation" discussion paper

It is extremely important to ensure that people with disabilities can access information and cultural works on an equal basis with others. Access is fundamentally important to enable people with disabilities to fully participate in economic, social, and political life. This is both a pressing moral imperative and a legal requirement in international law. Australia should take clear steps to affirmatively redress the fundamental inequalities of access that people with disabilities face. This requires a fundamental shift in the way that we think about copyright and disability rights: the mechanisms for enabling access should not be a limited exception to normal distribution, but should instead be strong positive rights that are able to be routinely and practically exercised.

Is biggest best? A comparative analysis of the financial viability of the Brisbane City Council

Structural reform through forced mergers has been a dominant feature of Australian local government for decades. Advocates of compulsory consolidation contend that larger municipalities perform better across a wide range of attributes, including financial sustainability. While empirical scholars of local government have invested considerable effort into investigating these claims, no-one has yet examined the performance of Brisbane City Council against other local authorities, despite the fact that it is by far the largest council in Australia. This paper seeks to remedy this neglect by comparing Brisbane with Sydney City Council, an average of six south east Queensland councils and an average of ten metropolitan New South Wales councils against four measures of financial performance over the period 2008 to 2011.

Hail to the thief: A tribute to Kazaa

This paper considers the ongoing litigation against the peer to peer network Kazaa. Record companies and Hollywood studios have faced jurisdictional and legal problems in suing this network for copyright infringement. As Wired Magazine observes: ’The servers are in Denmark. The software is in Estonia. The domain is registered Down Under, the corporation on a tiny island in the South Pacific. The users - 60 million of them - are everywhere around the world.' In frustration, copyright owners have launched copyright actions against intermediaries - like Internet Service Providers such as Verizon. They have also embarked on filing suits of individual users of file-sharing programs. In addition, copyright owners have called for domestic and international law reform in respect of digital copyright. The Senate Committee on Government Affairs in the United States Congress has reviewed the controversial use of subpoenas in suits against users of file-sharing peer to peer networks. The United States has encouraged other countries to adopt provisions of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998 (US) in bilateral and regional free trade agreements.

Submission on the Hawke Interim Review of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Cth)

There are currently no regulatory mechanisms, laws or policies that specifically provide rights to Indigenous peoples over their Indigenous knowledge and intellectual property. We strongly recommend that the commonwealth take the lead to ensure that national sui generis laws are developed (perhaps to operate initially in areas of Cth jurisdiction, such as IPAs and national parks). The development of such laws should be in tandem with practical guidelines to assist their implementation. A comprehensive, nationally consistent scheme for access to genetic resources, which offers meaningful protection of traditional knowledge and substantive benefit-sharing with Indigenous communities, has to be developed. There are already a range of reports/resources that urge these same reforms and that we direct the Enquiry to again; these include the Voumard Report (2000) – especially Fourmile’s Appendix 10 – “Indigenous Interests”, and Terri Jankes “Our Culture, Our Future (1998).

Joseph P. Chamberlain Papers 1933-1951

Correspondence, memoranda, reports and printed matter relating to Chamberlain's work with the following organizations: American Christian Committee for Refugees; Fort Ontario Refugee Shelter, Oswego, N.Y.; German Jewish Children's Aid; Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees; National Coordinating Committee; National Refugee Service; President's Advisory Committee on Political Refugees; War Refugee Board. Topics include Chamberlain's involvement with individual cases, visas, sponsorship, German-Jewish scholars, Intergovernmental Committee on Refugees at Evian, Bermuda Conference, Capital Transfer Plan for German-Austrian Refugees. Of particular interest are the minutes of the President's Advisory Committee, 1938-1943. Materials on settlement projects relating to Alaska, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, British Guiana, California, China, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Venezuela. Correspondents include Dean Acheson, Paul Baerwald, Joseph Beck, Francis K. Biddle, Bernard Dubin, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Felix Frankfurter, Cordell Hull, James Houghteling, Joseph C. Hyman, Ruth Learned, James G. McDonald, Clarence E. Pickett, Leland Robinson, William Rosenwald, Joseph F. Rummel, E.J. Shaughnessy, Felix Warburg, George L. Warren.

Förutsättningarna för psykiatrisk vård oberoende av patientens vilja och patientens rättsskydd vid fattandet av vårdbeslutet

I arbetet analyseras de i mentalvårdslagen (1990/1116) stadgade förutsättningarna för psykiatrisk sjukhusvård oberoende av patientens vilja gällande myndiga patienter för vilka inte har utsetts en intressebevakare före fattandet av vårdbeslutet, samt bakgrunden till och en del av de svårigheter som förknippas med denna form av vård och härtill anknutet beslutsfattande. Problemen tillspetsas framförallt i situationer av intressekonflikt mellan patientens intressen respektive samhällets intressen. Utgångspunkten ligger främst i finländsk mentalvårdslagstiftning och rättspraxis, men för att på ett ändamålsenligt sätt kunna redogöra för bakgrunden till och förutsättningarna för dylikt förvaltningsrättsligt beslutsfattande görs även relevanta kopplingar till medicinska (psykiatriska) yrkesetiska riktlinjer och mentalvårdslagstiftning inom övriga Norden. Analysen omfattar även den Europeiska människorättsdomstolens praxis i fall som gäller frihetsberövande på basis av psykiatrisk vård, närmare bestämt artikel 5 (1)(e) i den europeiska människorättskonventionen. Patientens självbestämmanderätt, frihet och integritet är utgångspunkterna för alla slags vårdförhållanden. Dessa inbegriper bl.a. frivillighet och informerat samtycke då en person söker vård. Möjligheten att förordna en person till psykiatrisk vård oberoende av dennes vilja är ett lagstadgat undantag till dessa principer. Beslutsfattandet är bundet till strikta lagstadgade förutsättningar, vilkas bedömning kräver juridisk, men framförallt medicinsk kunskap, vilket också skapar gränser och utmaningar för de yrkespersoner som arbetar med dylika ärenden. Kombinationen av psykiatri, etik och juridik är nödvändig, men inte alltid enkel att göra, vilket märks inte minst på terminologin som tillämpas i mentalvårdslagstiftningen. I arbetet analyseras en del av den terminologi som tillämpas inom finsk och övrig nordisk mentalvårdslagstiftning. Syftet är att visa att definitionerna, tolkningarna, terminologin och synsättet på psykisk ohälsa som tillämpas inom den finländska mentalvårdslagstiftningen jämförelsevis kanske inte är de mest lämpliga eller tidsenliga. En annan svår uppgift, som framförallt lagstiftaren ställ(t)s inför, är utformningen av mentalvårdslagstiftning som är tillräckligt flexibel för att tillåta beaktande av särdragen i varje enskilt ärende, men som samtidigt är strikt nog för att förhindra godtycke och missbruk. En person som lider av allvarlig psykisk ohälsa befinner sig oftast i en ytterst utsatt position, och är ofta begränsat eller inte alls kapabel att göra en korrekt bedömning av sig själv och sin situation. Således sker den starka betoningen av patientens självbestämmanderätt på både gott och ont. Det är kanske inte alltid i en psykiatrisk patients bästa att få bestämma själv, vilket också är en av frågorna som omfattas av analysen i arbetet. Eftersom det psykiatriska vårdbeslutet till karaktären är ett (skriftligt) förvaltningsbeslut, skiljer det sig samtidigt från övrigt beslutsfattande inom vårdsektorn, vilket till största delen utgör faktisk förvaltningsverksamhet. För patienten innebär vårdbeslutet också ett administrativt frihetsberövande. Ingreppet i patientens grundläggande fri- och rättigheter är särskilt stort och upplevs ofta som mycket kränkande, och därför ställs särskilt strikta krav på iakttagande av det lagstadgade beslutsförfarandet och vårdförutsättningarna samt tillgodoseendet av patientens rättsskydd. Den offentliga hälso- och sjukvården är verksamhet som är underställd den offentliga förvaltningen, vilket innebär att de allmänna förvaltningsrättsliga rättsskyddsgarantierna är tillämpliga. I och med vårdbeslutets karaktär av förvaltningsbeslut, kan ändring i beslutet sökas genom besvär hos förvaltningsdomstolen. Dessa är också några av de frågor som behandlas i arbetet.

Cryptographic Software Export Controls in the EU

Certain software products employing digital techniques for encryption of data are subject to export controls in the EU Member States pursuant to Community law and relevant laws in the Member States. These controls are agreed globally in the framework of the so-called Wassenaar Arrangement. Wassenaar is an informal non-proliferation regime aimed at promoting international stability and responsibility in transfers of strategic (dual-use) products and technology. This thesis covers provisions of Wassenaar, Community export control laws and export control laws of Finland, Sweden, Germany, France and United Kingdom. This thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter discusses the ratio of export control laws and the impact they have on global trade. The ratio is originally defence-related - in general to prevent potential adversaries of participating States from having the same tools, and in particular in the case of cryptographic software to enable signals intelligence efforts. Increasingly as the use of cryptography in a civilian context has mushroomed, export restrictions can have negative effects on civilian trade. Information security solutions may also be took weak because of export restrictions on cryptography. The second chapter covers the OECD's Cryptography Policy, which had a significant effect on its member nations' national cryptography policies and legislation. The OECD is a significant organization,because it acts as a meeting forum for most important industrialized nations. The third chapter covers the Wassenaar Arrangement. The Arrangement is covered from the viewpoint of international law and politics. The Wassenaar control list provisions affecting cryptographic software transfers are also covered in detail. Control lists in the EU and in Member States are usually directly copied from Wassenaar control lists. Controls agreed in its framework set only a minimum level for participating States. However, Wassenaar countries can adopt stricter controls. The fourth chapter covers Community export control law. Export controls are viewed in Community law as falling within the domain of Common Commercial Policy pursuant to Article 133 of the EC Treaty. Therefore the Community has exclusive competence in export matters, save where a national measure is authorized by the Community or falls under foreign or security policy derogations established in Community law. The Member States still have a considerable amount of power in the domain of Common Foreign and Security Policy. They are able to maintain national export controls because export control laws are not fully harmonized. This can also have possible detrimental effects on the functioning of internal market and common export policies. In 1995 the EU adopted Dual-Use Regulation 3381/94/EC, which sets common rules for exports in Member States. Provisions of this regulation receive detailed coverage in this chapter. The fifth chapter covers national legislation and export authorization practices in five different Member States - in Finland, Sweden, Germany, France and in United Kingdom. Export control laws of those Member States are covered when the national laws differ from the uniform approach of the Community's acquis communautaire. Keywords: export control, encryption, software, dual-use, license, foreign trade, e-commerce, Internet

Monopolising Names? : The Protection of Geographical Indications in the European Community

Marketing of goods under geographical names has always been common. Aims to prevent abuse have given rise to separate forms of legal protection for geographical indications (GIs) both nationally and internationally. The European Community (EC) has also gradually enacted its own legal regime to protect geographical indications. The legal protection of GIs has traditionally been based on the idea that geographical origin endows a product exclusive qualities and characteristics. In today s world we are able to replicate almost any prod-uct anywhere, including its qualities and characteristics. One would think that this would preclude protec-tion from most geographical names, yet the number of geographical indications seems to be rising. GIs are no longer what they used to be. In the EC it is no longer required that a product is endowed exclusive characteristics by its geographical origin as long as consumers associate the product with a certain geo-graphical origin. This departure from the traditional protection of GIs is based on the premise that a geographical name extends beyond and exists apart from the product and therefore deserves protection itself. The thesis tries to clearly articulate the underlying reasons, justifications, principles and policies behind the protection of GIs in the EC and then scrutinise the scope and shape of the GI system in the light of its own justifications. The essential questions it attempts to aswer are (1) What is the basis and criteria for granting GI rights? (2) What is the scope of protection afforded to GIs? and (3) Are these both justified in the light of the functions and policies underlying granting and protecting of GIs? Despite the differences, the actual functions of GIs are in many ways identical to those of trade marks. Geographical indications have a limited role as source and quality indicators in allowing consumers to make informed and efficient choices in the market place. In the EC this role is undermined by allowing able room and discretion for uses that are arbitrary. Nevertheless, generic GIs are unable to play this role. The traditional basis for justifying legal protection seems implausible in most case. Qualities and charac-teristics are more likely to be related to transportable skill and manufacturing methods than the actual geographical location of production. Geographical indications are also incapable of protecting culture from market-induced changes. Protection against genericness, against any misuse, imitation and evocation as well as against exploiting the reputation of a GI seem to be there to protect the GI itself. Expanding or strengthening the already existing GI protection or using it to protect generic GIs cannot be justified with arguments on terroir or culture. The conclusion of the writer is that GIs themselves merit protection only in extremely rare cases and usually only the source and origin function of GIs should be protected. The approach should not be any different from one taken in trade mark law. GI protection should not be used as a means to mo-nopolise names. At the end of the day, the scope of GI protection is nevertheless a policy issue.

The Road to Hell Is Paved with Good Interventions : A Pragmatic Examination of Humanitarian Intervention with Special Reference to Kosovo

Kansainvälisen oikeuden alaan kuuluvassa tutkielmassa käsitellään humanitaarisen intervention oikeutusta ja laillisuutta. Tutkimuskysymyksenä on, missä määrin humanitaarisilla näkökohdilla perusteltuja sotilaallisia toimia tai niillä uhkaamista voi pitää kansainvälisoikeudellisesti hyväksyttävänä ja millainen painoarvo ennakkotapauksena olisi annettava NATO-maiden Kosovossa toteuttamalle väliintulolle. Tutkielmassa perehdytään ihmisoikeusajattelun tiettyjen taustaoletusten kritiikkiin. Tarkastelun kohteena ovat erityisesti kannanotot, joiden mukaan ihmisoikeuksia ei voi pitää luonteeltaan universaaleina, sekä kyseiseen kritiikkiin liittyvät väitteet siitä, että ns. hegemonisessa asemassa olevat valtiot hyödyntävät ihmisoikeusargumentteja oikeuttaakseen voimankäyttönsä. Universaalisuuskritiikkiä voidaan pitää pitkälti perusteltuna, mutta nykyinen kansainvälinen yhteisö tarvitsee kuitenkin tietynlaisia yleismaailmallisia normeja voidakseen toimia tehokkaasti. Kritiikin ei voikaan katsoa pätevän humanitaarisen intervention kannalta keskeisiin ihmisoikeusnormeihin kuten kansanmurhan kieltoon, sillä kyseiset velvoitteet suojaavat kansainvälisen yhteisön toimivuutta ja uskottavuutta. Humanitaarisiin argumentteihin liittyy kuitenkin muita ongelmia: niillä on esimerkiksi aika ajoin pyritty oikeuttamaan sotilaallisia toimia, joissa ihmisoikeusnäkökohdat eivät välttämättä ole olleet etusijalla. Ihmisoikeuksille ei ole syytä antaa kansainvälisessä oikeudessa asemaa universaaleina "superargumentteina", jotka eivät olisi kyseenalaistettavissa. YK:n peruskirjan ja kansainvälisen tapaoikeuden näkökulmasta humanitaarisen intervention kaltaiseen voimankäyttöön vaaditaan turvallisuusneuvoston hyväksyntä, jota ei Kosovo-operaatioon saatu. Interventiota voi tässä suhteessa pitää yksiselitteisesti laittomana, sillä sen tueksi esitetyt oikeudelliset argumentit eivät ole vakuuttavia. Tapaukseen liittyvät ihmisoikeusnäkökohdat ovat kuitenkin siinä määrin merkittäviä, että ongelmaan ei ole perusteltua suhtautua tiukan legalistisesti. Operaation hyväksyminen moraaliargumenttien nojalla voisi kuitenkin johtaa nykyisten voimankäyttörajoitusten marginalisoitumiseen, mikä olisi yllä käsitellyn kritiikin valossa ongelmallista. Tutkielmassa nostetaan suositeltavaksi ratkaisuksi lähestymistapa, jossa Kosovon tapaus ymmärretään yksittäisenä oikeudenvastaisena mutta samalla oikeudenulkoisena poikkeustapauksena. Tällöin peruskirjan mukainen voimankäytön sääntely säilyy entisellään ilman että humanitaariset näkökohdat jäisivät tyystin huomiotta. Ratkaisu ei sulje pois mahdollisuutta suhtautua positiivisesti Kosovo-operaation mahdollisesti luomaan "poliittiseen normiin": suuren mittakaavan ihmisoikeusloukkaukset eivät jää Euroopassa seurauksitta. Ilman turvallisuusneuvoston suostumusta toteutettaviin humanitaarisiin interventioihin liittyvien käytännöllisten ja kansainvälisoikeudellisten riskien vuoksi niihin on kuitenkin aihetta suhtautua suurella varauksella.

From Francovich to Köbler and beyond : The evolution of a State liability regime for the EC

The aim of this paper is to present the evolution of the Francovich doctrine within the European legal order. The first part deals with the gradual development of the ECJ's case law on State liability in damages for breach of EC law. Starting from the seminal Francovich and Brasserie du Pêcheur, the clarification of the criteria set by the Court is attempted with reference to subsequent case law, whereas issues concerning the extent and form of the compensation owned are also mentioned. The second part concerns one of the more recent developments in the field, namely State liability for breaches of Community law attributed to national judiciary. The Court's ruling in Köbler is examined in connection with two other recent judgments, namely Commission v. Italy of 2003 and Kühne & Heitz, as an attempt of the ECJ to reframe its relationships with national supreme courts and appropriate for itself the position of the Supreme Court in the European legal order. The implications on State liability claims by the ruling in Commission v. France of 1997 constitute the theme of the third part, where it is submitted that Member States can also be held liable for disregard of Community law by private individuals within their respected territories. To this extent, Schmidberger is viewed as a manifestation of this opinion, with fundamental rights acquiring a new dimension, being invoked by the States, contra the individuals as a shield to liability claims. Finally, the third part examines the relationship between the Francovich doctrine and the principle of legal certainty and concludes that the solutions employed by the ECJ have been both predictable and acceptable by the national legal orders. Keywords: State liability, damages, Francovich, Köbler, Schmidberger

Tuomari virkamiehenä : Tuomarin asemaa koskevat valtiosääntöoikeudelliset periaatteet ja niiden virkamiesoikeudelliset takeet

Keskeisin tuomarin asemaa koskeva valtiosääntöoikeudellinen periaate on tuomiovallan riippumattomuuden periaate PL 3 §:n 3 momentissa. Tuomarin riippumattomuudella tavoitellaan erityisesti päätöksenteon riippumattomuutta nimenomaan yksilöiden ja yhteisöjen oikeusturvan takaamiseksi. Riippumattomuusvaatimuksen on todettu kattavan erityisesti yksittäisiin lainkäyttöasioihin puuttumisen ja normien tulkinnan. Tuomiovallan riippumattomuuden periaate valtiosääntöperiaatteena suojaa toisaalta tuomioistuinten ratkaisutoimintaa suhteessa toimeenpano- ja lainsäädäntövaltaan, mutta vastaavasti asettaa rajoituksia myös tuomiovallan puuttumiselle lainsäädäntö- ja hallintotehtäviin. Tuomiovallan riippumattomuus on periaatteena melko abstrakti; samoin kuin sitä koskeva perussäännös PL 3 §:n 3 momentissa, mutta periaatetta täsmentävät erityisesti PL 21 §:ssä säädetty perusoikeus sekä useat PL 9 luvun säännökset (PL 98–103 §). Tuomioistuinten riippumattomuus on liitettävissä erityisesti oikeudenmukaisen oikeudenkäynnin vaatimuksiin kansainvälisissä ihmisoikeussopimuksissa ja niitä koskevaan tulkintakäytäntöön. Kysymys on tällöin erityisesti luottamuksesta tuomioistuinten puolueettomuuteen eikä merkitystä ole annettu esimerkiksi vallanjaon periaatteelle sinänsä. YK:n ihmisoikeuskomitea on myös todennut, että riippumattomuuden vaatimus on pakottava. Eduskunnan perustuslakivaliokunnan PL 3 §:n 3 momenttia koskevissa tulkintakannanotoissa on todettu, että riippumattomuuden kannalta ongelmallista oli mm. veroviranomaisen mahdollisuus korvata tuomioistuimen ratkaisu omalla päätöksellään ja siten välillisesti muuttaa tuomioistuimen ratkaisua. Toisaalta PL 3 §:n kanssa ristiriidassa oli sääntely, jossa viranomaisen toimivallassa oli päättää, onko ylemmän oikeusasteen myöhemmällä ratkaisulla prejudikaattiarvoa suhteessa alemman tuomioistuimen päätökseen. Tuomioistuinten riippumattomuuden kannalta ei ole asianmukaista myöskään määritellä tuomioistuimelle menettelyllisiä vaatimuksia tai rajoituksia, jotka puuttuisivat oikeudenmukaisen oikeudenkäynnin edellytyksiin. Myös tuomarin asemaa turvaavat muut perustuslaintasoiset järjestelyt (tuomarin erityistä virassapysymisoikeutta koskeva säännös PL 103 §:ssä ja erityinen nimittämisjärjestelmä PL 58 §:ssä ja 102 §:ssä) johtuvat ennen muuta tuomiovallan riippumattomuuden periaatteesta. Tuomarin asema virkamiehenä on muita virkamiehiä turvatumpi PL 103 §:n säännöksen johdosta ja virkasuhteen pysyvyyden vaatimuksella voidaan perustella myös tuomareita koskevia virkamiesoikeudellisia erityisjärjestelyitä. Yksittäinen tuomari on tuomitsemistehtävässään riippumaton myös päällikkötuomarista. Häneen voidaan kuitenkin kohdistaa työnjohdollisia toimenpiteitä. Riippumattomuus ei myöskään suojaa tuomarin henkilökohtaisia näkemyksiä viranhoidon vaatimuksista esimerkiksi virkatehtävien toimittamisen tapaa, järjestystä ja niihin käytettävää aikaa koskevissa kysymyksissä. Valtion virkamieslakiin (750/1994) tulossa olevan muutoksen jälkeen (HE 33/2008 vp.) tuomarille voitaisiin antaa myös virkamieslain 24 §:n mukainen kirjallinen varoitus. Varoituksen antaminen ei kuitenkaan voi perustua näkemyseroihin laintulkinnasta vaan että sen perusteena tulee olla yksinomaan virkavelvollisuuksien laiminlyöminen tai muu niiden vastainen toiminta. Avainsanat – Nyckelord – Keywords Valtiosääntöoikeus, virkamiesoikeus, perustuslaki, valtion virkamieslaki, tuomioistuinlaitos, tuomioistuimet, tuomarit, riippumattomuus, virassapysymisoikeus Säilytyspaikka – Förvaringställe – Where deposited Muita tietoja – Övriga uppgifter – Additional information

Aplicación del derecho público extranjero

Resumen: El uso jurídico como método de resolución de los conflictos de normas en el Derecho Internacional Privado reclama al Derecho Público extranjero con la única limitante del orden público aplicado a posteriori y como conjunto de principios. Si asumimos el problema de la adaptación de la norma desde el uso jurídico, puede hablarse de una teoría del “envío pleno” al derecho extranjero y a partir de allí todo el ordenamiento extranjero debe ser tenido en cuenta y no solo el Derecho Civil o una parte de él. Se debe rescatar la concepción sistémica del Derecho en un mundo jurídico donde la distinción clásica entre el Derecho Público y el Derecho Privado ha perdido su sentido y vigencia.

Modulação temporal de efeitos: uma abordagem dogmática e dialógica

A presente dissertação objetiva ampliar o tratamento dogmático da modulação temporal dos efeitos da decisão que reconhece a inconstitucionalidade de atos normativos. Busca-se também abordar a perspectiva prospectiva no controle de legalidade e na aferição de juridicidade dos demais atos não normativos praticados no âmbito dos três poderes. Além de abordar os pressupostos teóricos subjacentes à abordagem prospectiva, foram analisados os sistemas de controle de constitucionalidade e os distintos regimes conferidos às situações de invalidade. Promove-se a releitura do tema de forma a reconduzir a modulação dos efeitos temporais à ponderação entre os princípios constitucionais violados pela norma que se pretende declarar inválida e os que tutelam as relações jurídicas que se formaram durante a vigência da norma declarada inválida. Discorre-se particularmente sobre o tema no Brasil, evidenciando-se que a perspectiva prospectiva não se circunscreve apenas ao regramento formal estabelecido pelas normas infraconstitucionais. Por fim, apresenta-se a modulação de efeitos como uma ferramenta valiosa de diálogo institucional, que pode permitir a conciliação dos espaços próprios dos poderes constituídos, temperando um eventual ativismo judicial. Evidencia-se que a modulação temporal de efeitos funciona como ponte entre as teorias empíricas e normativas. Vale-se de abordagens consequencialistas e institucionais sem se descurar da preocupação normativa e dogmática. Permite concomitantemente o debate mais intenso e o diálogo entre os poderes, tudo com o objetivo de se assegurar a concretização dos preceitos constitucionais de uma forma mais harmônica e sistemática.

A judicialização da saúde na perspectiva da gestão local : um estudo da experiência de Saquarema - RJ

A Constituição Federal de 1988 garante o direito à saúde no Brasil a todos os brasileiros. Para assegurar esse direito constitucional foi instituído através das Leis ns 8080/90 e 8142/90, o Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS), organização de direito público que normatiza toda a prestação de assistência à saúde da população. O SUS, constituído a partir de diretrizes filosóficas, garante assistência universal e gratuita em todas as áreas do setor saúde. Incorporado ao SUS através da Política Nacional de Medicamentos e depois pela Política Nacional de Assistência Farmacêutica, o acesso a medicamentos é um setor estratégico da política pública de saúde. A judicialização do acesso à saúde e à assistência farmacêutica, que se converteu em recurso necessário para garantir o direito à saúde no Brasil, é hoje um importante componente da gestão municipal de saúde. Trata-se de um processo que se inicia com a aquisição de medicamentos para tratar o HIV/Aids na década de 1990. Este trabalho realizou uma pesquisa, de caráter exploratório, no município de Saquarema, que permitiu construir uma análise (qualitativa e quantitativa) das ordens judiciais, procedentes da Defensoria Pública da Comarca de Saquarema para aquisição de medicamentos, entre 01/01/2011 e 31/12/2012, totalizando 106 demandas, a partir de prescrições médicas individuais feitas por profissionais do SUS. A pesquisa constatou que a hipossuficiência de recursos e a urgência dos autores das ações são os principais respaldos das decisões judiciais. Ela também observou que a maioria dos requerentes é do gênero feminino, com idade acima de 61 anos, com patologias crônicas e fazendo uso contínuo de medicamentos. Esses medicamentos foram prescritos por quatro profissionais médicos oriundos de quatro especialidades (oftalmologia, cardiologia, endocrinologia e pediatria) e representam 60% das demandas judiciais. A situação de conflito pesquisada mostra que o direito à saúde está sendo exercido através do Poder Judiciário, com uma Defensoria Pública relativamente eficiente, atendendo a uma população com poucos recursos econômicos, que faz uso de medicamentos para tratamento de doenças crônicas e degenerativas. A prescrição médica individual é o documento necessário para requisitar os medicamentos de uso contínuo. A pesquisa, após analisar os principais resultados, aponta algumas alternativas, chamadas de ações defensivas, que as gestões municipais de saúde em Saquarema e outras municipalidades podem adotar.