I. Development of the In Situ Reductive Ozonolysis of Alkenes with Tertiary Amine N-Oxides. II. Progress toward the Asymmetric Synthesis of Peroxyplakoric Acid A3.

Ozone, first discovered in the mid 1800’s, is a triatomic allotrope of oxygen that is a powerful oxidant. For over a century, research has been conducted into the synthetic application and mechanism of reactions of ozone with organic compounds. One of the major areas of interest has been the ozonolysis of alkenes. The production of carbonyl compounds is the most common synthetic application of ozonolysis. The generally accepted mechanism developed by Rudolf Criegee for this reaction involves the 1,3-electrocyclic addition of ozone to the π bond of the alkene to form a 1,2,3-trioxolane or primary ozonide. The primary ozonide is unstable at temperatures above -100 °C and undergoes cycloreversion to produce the carbonyl oxide and carbonyl intermediates. These intermediates then recombine in another 1,3-electrocyclic addition step to form the 1,2,4-trioxolane or final ozonide. While the final ozonide is often isolable, most synthetic applications of ozonolysis require a subsequent reductive or oxidative step to form the desired carbonyl compound. During investigations into the nucleophilic trapping of the reactive carbonyl oxide, it was discovered that when amines were used as additives, an increased amount of reaction time was required in order to consume all of the starting material. Surprisingly, significant amounts of aldehydes and a suppression of ozonide formation also occurred which led to the discovery that amine N-oxides formed by the ozonation of the amine additives in the reaction were intercepting the carbonyl oxide. From the observed production of aldehydes, our proposed mechanism for the in situ reductive ozonolysis reaction with amine N-oxides involves the nucleophilic trapping of the carbonyl oxide intermediate to produce a zwitterionic adduct that fragments into 1O2, amine and the carbonyl thereby avoiding the formation of peroxidic intermediates. With the successful total syntheses of peroxyacarnoates A and D by Dr. Chunping Xu, the asymmetric total synthesis of peroxyplakorate A3 was investigated. The peroxyplakoric acids are cyclic peroxide natural products isolated from the Plakortis species of marine sponge that have been found to exhibit activity against malaria, cancer and fungi. Even though the peroxyplakorates differ from the peroxyacarnoates in the polyunsaturated tail and the head group, the lessons learned from the syntheses of the peroxyacarnoates have proven to be valuable in the asymmetric synthesis of peroxyplakorate A3. The challenges for the asymmetric synthesis of peroxyplakorate A3 include the stereospecific formation of the 3-methoxy-1,2-dioxane core with a propionate head group and the introduction of oxidation sensitive dienyl tail in the presence of a reduction sensitive 1,2-dioxane core. It was found that the stereochemistry of two of the chiral centers could be controlled by an anti-aldol reaction of a chiral propionate followed by the stereospecific intramolecular cyclization of a hydroperoxyacetal. The regioselective ozonolysis of a 1,2-disubstituted alkene in the presence of a terminal alkyne forms the required hydroperoxyacetal as a mixture of diastereomers. Finally, the dienyl tail is introduced by a hydrometallation/iodination of the alkyne to produce a vinyl iodide followed by a palladium catalyzed coupling reaction. While the coupling reaction was unsuccessful in these attempts, it is still believed that the intramolecular cyclization to introduce the 1,2-dioxane core could prove to be a general solution to many other cyclic peroxides natural products.

Metallic chalcogenolates mediated modular Michael-aldol cascade reaction: an easy route to multi-functionalized chalcogenides and Morita-Baylis-Hillman adducts

Chalcogenolate mediated Michael-aldol cascade reactions consists of a very efficient route to multi-functionalized gamma-hydroxichalcogenides. Although, when selenolates are employed, these gamma-hydroxichalcogenides can be readily converted into the corresponding Morita-Baylis-Hillman adducts by oxidative elimination of the selenium moiety. In this context, herein we present a complete study on the scope and limitations of this reaction. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Angiotensin-(3-4) counteracts the Angiotensin II inhibitory action on renal Ca2+-ATPase through a cAMP/PKA pathway

We recently demonstrated that Angiotensin-(3-4) [Ang-(3-4)], an Ang II-derived dipeptide, overcomes inhibition of plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase promoted by nanomolar concentrations of Ang II in basolateral membranes of renal proximal tubule cells, with involvement of a so far unknown AT(2)R-dependent and NO-independent mechanism. The present study investigates the signaling pathway triggered by Ang-(3-4) that is responsible for counteracting the inhibitory effect of Ang II, and attempts to elucidate the functional interaction of the dipeptide with Ang II at the level of AT(2)R. Stimulation by cholera toxin of G(s)alpha protein structurally linked to AT(2)R as revealed by their co-immunoprecipitation mimicked the effect of Ang-(3-4) on Ca2+-ATPase activity. Furthermore, addition of dibutyril-cAMP (db-cAMP) mimicked Ang-(3-4), whereas the specific PKA inhibitor, PKAi((5-24)) peptide, suppressed the counter-regulatory effect of Ang-(3-4) and the AT(2)R agonist, CGP42112A. Membrane-associated PKA activity was stimulated by Ang-(3-4) or CGP42112A to comparable levels as db-cAMP, and the Ang-(3-4) effect was abrogated by the AT(2)R antagonist PD123319, whereas the AT(1)R antagonist Losartan had no effect. Ang-(3-4) stimulated PKA-mediated phosphorylation of Ca2+-ATPase and activated PKA to comparable levels. Binding assays demonstrated that Ang-(3-4) could not displace H-3-Ang II from HEK 293T cells expressing AT(2)R, but 10(-10) mol/L Ang-(3-4) resulted in the appearance of a probable higher-affinity site (picomolar range) for Ang II. The results presented herein demonstrate that Ang-(3-4), acting as an allosteric enhancer, suppresses Ang II-mediated inhibition of Ca2+-ATPase through an AT(2)R/cAMP/PKA pathway, after inducing conformational changes in AT(2)R that results in generation of higher-affinity sites for Ang II. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Synthesis and properties of cyclic gomesin and analogues

Gomesin (Gm) was the first antimicrobial peptide (AMP) isolated from the hemocytes of a spider, the Brazilian mygalomorph Acanthoscurria gomesiana. We have been studying the properties of this interesting AMP, which also displays anticancer, antimalarial, anticryptococcal and anti-Leishmania activities. In the present study, the total syntheses of backbone-cyclized analogues of Gm (two disulfide bonds), [Cys(Acm)2,15]-Gm (one disulfide bond) and [Thr2,6,11,15,d-Pro9]-Gm (no disulfide bonds) were accomplished, and the impact of cyclization on their properties was examined. The consequence of simultaneous deletion of pGlu1 and Arg16-Glu-Arg18-NH2 on Gm antimicrobial activity and structure was also analyzed. The results obtained showed that the synthetic route that includes peptide backbone cyclization on resin was advantageous and that a combination of 20% DMSO/NMP, EDC/HOBt, 60?degrees C and conventional heating appears to be particularly suitable for backbone cyclization of bioactive peptides. The biological properties of the Gm analogues clearly revealed that the N-terminal amino acid pGlu1 and the amidated C-terminal tripeptide Arg16-Glu-Arg18-NH2 play a major role in the interaction of Gm with the target membranes. Moreover, backbone cyclization practically did not affect the stability of the peptides in human serum; it also did not affect or enhanced hemolytic activity, but induced selectivity and, in some cases, discrete enhancements of antimicrobial activity and salt tolerance. Because of its high therapeutic index, easy synthesis and lower cost, the [Thr2,6,11,15,d-Pro9]-Gm analogue remains the best active Gm-derived AMP developed so far; nevertheless, its elevated instability in human serum may limit its therapeutic potential. Copyright (c) 2012 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Solvent Effect in Reactions Using Stryker's Reagent

The solvent has a significant influence in the rate of reactions promoted by Stryker's reagent The reactions performed in THF were, in most cases, faster than in toluene.

Joint NOD2/RIPK2 Signaling Regulates IL-17 Axis and Contributes to the Development of Experimental Arthritis

Intracellular pattern recognition receptors such as the nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptors family members are key for innate immune recognition of microbial infection and may play important roles in the development of inflammatory diseases, including rheumatic diseases. In this study, we evaluated the role of NOD1 and NOD2 on development of experimental arthritis. Ag-induced arthritis was generated in wild-type, NOD1(-/-)!, NOD2(-/-), or receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 2(-/-) (RIPK2(-/-)) immunized mice challenged intra-articularly with methylated BSA. Nociception was determined by electronic Von Frey test. Neutrophil recruitment and histopathological analysis of proteoglycan lost was evaluated in inflamed joints. Joint levels of inflammatory cytokine/chemokine were measured by ELISA. Cytokine (IL-6 and IL-23) and NOD2 expressions were determined in mice synovial tissue by RT-PCR. The NOD2(-/-) and RIPK2(-/-), but not NOD1(-/-), mice are protected from Ag-induced arthritis, which was characterized by a reduction in neutrophil recruitment, nociception, and cartilage degradation. NOD2/RIPK2 signaling impairment was associated with a reduction in proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines (TNF, IL-1 beta, and CXCL1/KC). IL-17 and IL-17 triggering cytokines (IL-6 and IL-23) were also reduced in the joint, but there is no difference in the percentage of CD4(+) IL-17(+) cells in the lymph node between arthritic wild-type and NOD2(-/-) mice. Altogether, these findings point to a pivotal role of the NOD2/RIPK2 signaling in the onset of experimental arthritis by triggering an IL-17-dependent joint immune response. Therefore, we could propose that NOD2 signaling is a target for the development of new therapies for the control of rheumatoid arthritis. The Journal of Immunology, 2012, 188: 5116-5122.

Populene D Analogues: Design, Concise Synthesis and Antiproliferative Activity

An efficient and concise synthesis of nine populene D analogues was performed using an iodine-catalyzed Prins cyclization as the key transformation. The antiproliferative activity of these new pyrans against several cancer cell lines was then investigated. Among them, an isochromene with moderate activity (mean logGI(50) = 0.91) was found. Additionally, compounds with selectivity toward the tumor cell lines NCI-ADR/RES, OVCAR-3, and HT29 were discovered.

Exploring the intrinsic polar [4?+?2+] cycloaddition reactivity of gaseous carbosulfonium and carboxonium ions

Gas-phase reactions of model carbosulfonium ions (CH3-S+?=?CH2; CH3CH2-S+?=?CH2 and Ph-S+?=?CH2) and an O-analogue carboxonium ion (CH3-O+?=?CH2) with acyclic (isoprene, 1,3-butadiene, methyl vinyl ketone) and cyclic (1,3-cyclohexadiene, thiophene, furan) conjugated dienes were systematically investigated by pentaquadrupole mass spectrometry. As corroborated by B3LYP/6-311?G(d,p) calculations, the carbosulfonium ions first react at large extents with the dienes forming adducts via simple addition. The nascent adducts, depending on their stability and internal energy, react further via two competitive channels: (1) in reactions with acyclic dienes via cyclization that yields formally [4?+?2+] cycloadducts, or (2) in reactions with the cyclic dienes via dissociation by HSR loss that yields methylenation (net CH+ transfer) products. In great contrast to its S-analogues, CH3-O+?=?CH2 (as well as C2H5-O+?=?CH2 and Ph-O+?=?CH2 in reactions with isoprene) forms little or no adduct and proton transfer is the dominant reaction channel. Isomerization to more acidic protonated aldehydes in the course of reaction seems to be the most plausible cause of the contrasting reactivity of carboxonium ions. The CH2?=?CH-O+?=?CH2 ion forms an abundant [4?+?2+] cycloadduct with isoprene, but similar to the behavior of such alpha,beta-unsaturated carboxonium ions in solution, seems to occur across the C?=?C bond. Copyright (c) 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Asymmetric synthesis of benzylic and heterobenzylic amines

C2-Symmetrical, enantiopure 2,6-di[1-(1-aziridinyl)alkyl]pyridines (DIAZAPs) were prepared by a high-yielding, three-step sequence starting from 2,6-pyridinedicarbaldehyde and (S)-valinol or (S)-phenylglycinol. The new compounds were tested as ligands in palladium-catalyzed allylation of carbanions in different solvents. Almost quantitative yield and up to 99% enantiomeric excess were obtained in the reactions of the enolates derived from malonate, phenyl- and benzylmalonate dimethyl esters with 1,3-diphenyl-2-propenyl ethyl carbonate. Asymmetric synthesis of 2-(2-pyridyl)aziridines from chiral 2-pyridineimines bearing a stereogenic center at the nitrogen atom was development. The envisioned route involves the addition of chloromethyllithium to the imine derived from 2-pyridinealdehyde and (S)-valinol, protected as O-trimethylsilyl ether. The analogous reaction performed on the imine derived from (S)-valine methyl ester gave the product containing the aziridine ring as well as the α-chloro ketone group coming from the attack of chloromethyllithium to the ester function. Other stereogenic alkyl substituents at nitrogen gave less satisfactory results. Moreover, the aziridination protocol did not work on other aromatic imines, e.g. 3-pyridineimine and benzaldimine, which are not capable of bidentate chelation. The N-substituent could not be removed, but aziridine underwent ring-opening by attack of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen nucleophiles. Complete or prevalent regioselectivity was obtained using cerium trichloride heptahydrate as a catalyst. In some cases, the N-substituent could be removed by an oxidative protocol. The addition of organometallic (lithium, magnesium, zinc) reagents to 2-pyrroleimines derived from (S)-valinol and (S)-phenylglycinol gave the N-substituted-1-(2-pyrrolyl)alkylamines with high yields and diastereoselectivities. The (S,S)-diastereomers were useful intermediates for the preparation of enantiopure 1-[1-(2-pyrrolyl)alkyl]aziridines by routine cyclization of the β-aminoalcohol moiety and of (S)-N-benzoyl 1-[1-(2-pyrrolyl)alkyl]amines and their N-substituted derivatives by oxidative cleavage of the chiral auxiliary. 1-Allyl-2-pyrroleimines obtained from (S)-phenylglycinol and (S)-valinol underwent highly diastereoselective addition of allylmetal reagents, used in excess amounts, to give the corresponding secondary amines with concomitant allyl to 1-propenyl isomerisation of the 1-pyrrole substituent. Protection of the 2-aminoalcohol moiety as oxazolidinone, amide or Boc derivate followed by ring closing metathesis of the alkene groups gave the unsaturated bicyclic compound, whose hydrogenation afforded the indolizidine derivative as a mixture of separable diastereomers. The absolute configuration of the main diastereomer was assessed by X-ray crystallographic analysis.

De Novo Design of secondary structures: Synthesis and conformational studies

Chemists have long sought to extrapolate the power of biological catalysis and recognition to synthetic systems. These efforts have focused largely on low molecular weight catalysts and receptors; however, biological systems themselves rely almost exclusively on polymers, proteins and RNA, to perform complex chemical functions. Proteins and RNA are unique in their ability to adopt compact, well-ordered conformations, and specific folding provides precise spatial orientation of the functional groups that comprise the “active site”. These features suggest that identification of new polymer backbones with discrete and predictable folding propensities (“foldamers”) will provide a basis for design of molecular machines with unique capabilities. The foldamer approach complements current efforts to design unnatural properties into polypeptides and polynucleotides. The aim of this thesis is the synthesis and conformational studies of new classes of foldamers, using a peptidomimetic approach. Moreover their attitude to be utilized as ionophores, catalysts, and nanobiomaterials were analyzed in solution and in the solid state. This thesis is divided in thematically chapters that are reported below. It begins with a very general introduction (page 4) which is useful, but not strictly necessary, to the expert reader. It is worth mentioning that paragraph I.3 (page 22) is the starting point of this work and paragraph I.5 (page 32) isrequired to better understand the results of chapters 4 and 5. In chapter 1 (page 39) is reported the synthesis and conformational analysis of a novel class of foldamers containing (S)-β3-homophenylglycine [(S)-β3-hPhg] and D- 4-carboxy-oxazolidin-2-one (D-Oxd) residues in alternate order is reported. The experimental conformational analysis performed in solution by IR, 1HNMR, and CD spectroscopy unambiguously proved that these oligomers fold into ordered structures with increasing sequence length. Theoretical calculations employing ab initio MO theory suggest a helix with 11-membered hydrogenbonded rings as the preferred secondary structure type. The novel structures enrich the field of peptidic foldamers and might be useful in the mimicry of native peptides. In chapter 2 cyclo-(L-Ala-D-Oxd)3 and cyclo-(L-Ala-DOxd) 4 were prepared in the liquid phase with good overall yields and were utilized for bivalent ions chelation (Ca2+, Mg2+, Cu2+, Zn2+ and Hg2+); their chelation skill was analyzed with ESI-MS, CD and 1HNMR techniques and the best results were obtained with cyclo-(L-Ala-D-Oxd)3 and Mg2+ or Ca2+. Chapter 3 describes an application of oligopeptides as catalysts for aldol reactions. Paragraph 3.1 concerns the use of prolinamides as catalysts of the cross aldol addition of hydroxyacetone to aromatic aldeydes, whereas paragraphs 3.2 and 3.3 are about the catalyzed aldol addition of acetone to isatins. By means of DFT and AIM calculations, the steric and stereoelectronic effects that control the enantioselectivity in the cross-aldol addition of acetone to isatin catalysed by L-proline have been studied, also in the presence of small quantities of water. In chapter 4 is reported the synthesis and the analysis of a new fiber-like material, obtained from the selfaggregation of the dipeptide Boc-L-Phe-D-Oxd-OBn, which spontaneously forms uniform fibers consisting of parallel infinite linear chains arising from singleintermolecular N-H···O=C hydrogen bonds. This is the absolute borderline case of a parallel β-sheet structure. Longer oligomers of the same series with general formula Boc-(L-Phe-D-Oxd)n-OBn (where n = 2-5), are described in chapter 5. Their properties in solution and in the solid state were analyzed, in correlation with their attitude to form intramolecular hydrogen bond. In chapter 6 is reported the synthesis of imidazolidin-2- one-4-carboxylate and (tetrahydro)-pyrimidin-2-one-5- carboxylate, via an efficient modification of the Hofmann rearrangement. The reaction affords the desired compounds from protected asparagine or glutamine in good to high yield, using PhI(OAc)2 as source of iodine(III).

Transformations of bridging ligands in diiron complexes: unconventional routes to new functionalized multisite bound organic frames

The main scope of this Ph.D. thesis has concerned the possible transformations of bridging ligands in diiron complexes, in order to explore unconventional routes to the synthesis of new functionalized multisite bound organic frames. The results achieved during the Ph.D. can be summarized in the following points: 1) We have extended the assembling between small unsaturated molecules and bridging carbyne ligands in diiron complexes to other species. In particular, we have investigated the coupling between olefins and thiocarbyne, leading to the synthesis of thioallylidene bridging diiron complexes. Then, we have extended the study to the coupling between olefins and aminocarbyne. This result shows that the coupling between activated olefins and heteroatom substituted bridging carbynes has a general character. 2) As we have shown, the coupling of bridging alkylidyne ligands with alkynes and alkenes provides excellent routes to the synthesis of bridging C3 hydrocarbyl ligands. As a possible extension of these results we have examined the synthesis of C4 bridging frames through the combination of bridging alkylidynes with allenes. Also in this case the reaction has a general character. 3) Diiron complexes bearing bridging functionalized C3 organic frames display the presence of donor atoms, such as N and S, potentially able to coordinate unsaturated metal fragments. Thus, we have studied the possibility for these systems to act as ‘organometallic ligands’, in particular towards Pd and Rh. 4) The possibility of releasing the organic frame from the bridging coordination appears particularly appealing in the direction of a metal-assisted organic synthesis. Within this field, we have investigated the possibility of involving the C3 bridging ligand in cycloaddition reactions with alkynes, with the aim of generating variously functionalized five-membered cycles. The [3+2] cyclization does not lead to the complete release of the organic fragment but rather it produces its transformation into a cyclopentadienyl ring, which remains coordinated to one Fe atom. This result introduces a new approach to the formation of polyfunctionalised ferrocenes. 5) Furthermore, I have spent a research period of about six months at the Department of Inorganic Chemistry of the Barcelona University, under the supervision of Prof. Concepción López, with the aim of studying the chemistry of polydentate ferrocenyl ligands and their use in organometallic synthesis.

Structural changes and dynamic behaviour of vanadium oxide-based catalysts for gas-phase selective oxidations

Selective oxidation is one of the simplest functionalization methods and essentially all monomers used in manufacturing artificial fibers and plastics are obtained by catalytic oxidation processes. Formally, oxidation is considered as an increase in the oxidation number of the carbon atoms, then reactions such as dehydrogenation, ammoxidation, cyclization or chlorination are all oxidation reactions. In this field, most of processes for the synthesis of important chemicals used vanadium oxide-based catalysts. These catalytic systems are used either in the form of multicomponent mixed oxides and oxysalts, e.g., in the oxidation of n-butane (V/P/O) and of benzene (supported V/Mo/O) to maleic anhydride, or in the form of supported metal oxide, e.g., in the manufacture of phthalic anhydride by o-xylene oxidation, of sulphuric acid by oxidation of SO2, in the reduction of NOx with ammonia and in the ammoxidation of alkyl aromatics. In addition, supported vanadia catalysts have also been investigated for the oxidative dehydrogenation of alkanes to olefins , oxidation of pentane to maleic anhydride and the selective oxidation of methanol to formaldehyde or methyl formate [1]. During my PhD I focused my work on two gas phase selective oxidation reactions. The work was done at the Department of Industrial Chemistry and Materials (University of Bologna) in collaboration with Polynt SpA. Polynt is a leader company in the development, production and marketing of catalysts for gas-phase oxidation. In particular, I studied the catalytic system for n-butane oxidation to maleic anhydride (fluid bed technology) and for o-xylene oxidation to phthalic anhydride. Both reactions are catalyzed by systems based on vanadium, but catalysts are completely different. Part A is dedicated to the study of V/P/O catalyst for n-butane selective oxidation, while in the Part B the results of an investigation on TiO2-supported V2O5, catalyst for o-xylene oxidation are showed. In Part A, a general introduction about the importance of maleic anhydride, its uses, the industrial processes and the catalytic system are reported. The reaction is the only industrial direct oxidation of paraffins to a chemical intermediate. It is produced by n-butane oxidation either using fixed bed and fluid bed technology; in both cases the catalyst is the vanadyl pyrophosphate (VPP). Notwithstanding the good performances, the yield value didn’t exceed 60% and the system is continuously studied to improve activity and selectivity. The main open problem is the understanding of the real active phase working under reaction conditions. Several articles deal with the role of different crystalline and/or amorphous vanadium/phosphorous (VPO) compounds. In all cases, bulk VPP is assumed to constitute the core of the active phase, while two different hypotheses have been formulated concerning the catalytic surface. In one case the development of surface amorphous layers that play a direct role in the reaction is described, in the second case specific planes of crystalline VPP are assumed to contribute to the reaction pattern, and the redox process occurs reversibly between VPP and VOPO4. Both hypotheses are supported also by in-situ characterization techniques, but the experiments were performed with different catalysts and probably under slightly different working conditions. Due to complexity of the system, these differences could be the cause of the contradictions present in literature. Supposing that a key role could be played by P/V ratio, I prepared, characterized and tested two samples with different P/V ratio. Transformation occurring on catalytic surfaces under different conditions of temperature and gas-phase composition were studied by means of in-situ Raman spectroscopy, trying to investigate the changes that VPP undergoes during reaction. The goal is to understand which kind of compound constituting the catalyst surface is the most active and selective for butane oxidation reaction, and also which features the catalyst should possess to ensure the development of this surface (e.g. catalyst composition). On the basis of results from this study, it could be possible to project a new catalyst more active and selective with respect to the present ones. In fact, the second topic investigated is the possibility to reproduce the surface active layer of VPP onto a support. In general, supportation is a way to improve mechanical features of the catalysts and to overcome problems such as possible development of local hot spot temperatures, which could cause a decrease of selectivity at high conversion, and high costs of catalyst. In literature it is possible to find different works dealing with the development of supported catalysts, but in general intrinsic characteristics of VPP are worsened due to the chemical interaction between active phase and support. Moreover all these works deal with the supportation of VPP; on the contrary, my work is an attempt to build-up a V/P/O active layer on the surface of a zirconia support by thermal treatment of a precursor obtained by impregnation of a V5+ salt and of H3PO4. In-situ Raman analysis during the thermal treatment, as well as reactivity tests are used to investigate the parameters that may influence the generation of the active phase. Part B is devoted to the study of o-xylene oxidation of phthalic anhydride; industrially, the reaction is carried out in gas-phase using as catalysts a supported system formed by V2O5 on TiO2. The V/Ti/O system is quite complex; different vanadium species could be present on the titania surface, as a function of the vanadium content and of the titania surface area: (i) V species which is chemically bound to the support via oxo bridges (isolated V in octahedral or tetrahedral coordination, depending on the hydration degree), (ii) a polymeric species spread over titania, and (iii) bulk vanadium oxide, either amorphous or crystalline. The different species could have different catalytic properties therefore changing the relative amount of V species can be a way to optimize the catalytic performances of the system. For this reason, samples containing increasing amount of vanadium were prepared and tested in the oxidation of o-xylene, with the aim of find a correlations between V/Ti/O catalytic activity and the amount of the different vanadium species. The second part deals with the role of a gas-phase promoter. Catalytic surface can change under working conditions; the high temperatures and a different gas-phase composition could have an effect also on the formation of different V species. Furthermore, in the industrial practice, the vanadium oxide-based catalysts need the addition of gas-phase promoters in the feed stream, that although do not have a direct role in the reaction stoichiometry, when present leads to considerable improvement of catalytic performance. Starting point of my investigation is the possibility that steam, a component always present in oxidation reactions environment, could cause changes in the nature of catalytic surface under reaction conditions. For this reason, the dynamic phenomena occurring at the surface of a 7wt% V2O5 on TiO2 catalyst in the presence of steam is investigated by means of Raman spectroscopy. Moreover a correlation between the amount of the different vanadium species and catalytic performances have been searched. Finally, the role of dopants has been studied. The industrial V/Ti/O system contains several dopants; the nature and the relative amount of promoters may vary depending on catalyst supplier and on the technology employed for the process, either a single-bed or a multi-layer catalytic fixed-bed. Promoters have a quite remarkable effect on both activity and selectivity to phthalic anhydride. Their role is crucial, and the proper control of the relative amount of each component is fundamental for the process performance. Furthermore, it can not be excluded that the same promoter may play different role depending on reaction conditions (T, composition of gas phase..). The reaction network of phthalic anhydride formation is very complex and includes several parallel and consecutive reactions; for this reason a proper understanding of the role of each dopant cannot be separated from the analysis of the reaction scheme. One of the most important promoters at industrial level, which is always present in the catalytic formulations is Cs. It is known that Cs plays an important role on selectivity to phthalic anhydride, but the reasons of this phenomenon are not really clear. Therefore the effect of Cs on the reaction scheme has been investigated at two different temperature with the aim of evidencing in which step of the reaction network this promoter plays its role.

Stereoselective Catalytic Processes for the Synthesis of Polycyclic Aromatic Compounds

In this PhD-thesis, two methodologies for enantioselective intramolecular ring closing reaction on indole cores are presented. The first methodology represents a highly stereoselective alkylation of the indole N1-nitrogen, leading to 3,4-dihydro-pyrazinoindol-1-ones – a structural class which is known for its activity on the CNS and therefore of high pharmacological interest concerning related diseases. In this approach, N-benzyl cinchona-alkaloids were used for the efficient catalysis of intramolecular aza-Michael reactions. Furthermore, computational studies in collaboration with the research group Prof. Andrea Bottoni (Department of Chemistry “G. Ciamician”, Bologna) were accomplished in order to get insight into the key interactions between catalyst and substrate, leading to enantiomeric excesses up to 91%. The results of the calculations on a model system are in accordance with the experimental results and demonstrate the high sensibility of the system towards structural modifications. The second project deals with a metal catalyzed, intramolecular Friedel-Crafts (FC)-reaction on indolyl substrates, carrying a side chain which on its behalf is furnished with an allylic alcohol unit. Allylic alcohols are part of the structural class of “π-activated alcohols” – alcohols, which are more easily activated due to the proximity to a π-unit (allyl-, propargyl-, benzyl-). The enantioselective intramolecular cyclization event is catalyzed efficiently by employment of a chiral Au(I)-catalyst, leading to 1-vinyl- or 4-vinyl-tetrahydrocarbazoles (THCs) under the formation of water as byproduct. This striking and novel process concerning the direct activation of alcohols in catalytic FC-reactions was subsequently extended to similar precursors, leading to functionalized tetrahydro-β-carbolines. These two methodologies represent highly efficient approaches towards the synthesis of scaffolds, which are of enormous pharmaceutical interest and amplify the spectra of enantioselective catalytic functionalisations of indoles.

Neue konjugierte Polyarylene mit Leiterstruktur

Zusammenfassung: Im Rahmen der Arbeit wird über die Darstellung neuartiger, konjugierter Polyarylene mit Leiterstruktur berichtet. Über eine zweistufige Synthese wurde ein ethylenüberbrücktes Leiterpolymer (LPDP) hergestellt. Dabei wurde das Vorläuferpolymer mit Samarium(II)jodid unter milden Bedingungen zum Leiterpolymeren cyclisiert. Erste Untersuchungen zeigen, daß LPDP im Gegensatz zum 'gewinkelten Polyacen' eine sehr vielversprechende Elektrolumineszenz-Eigenschaft besitzt. Durch den Einbau chiraler Alkylsubstituenten in entsprechenden meta-Phenylen-Analoga der Leiterpolymere vom Polyacen-Typ wurde versucht, eine Vorzugsdrehrichtung der helikalen Leiterpolymere im Laufe der polymeranalogen Cyclisierung zu induzieren. Es zeigt sich, daß für eines der chiralen Derivate ein CD-Effekt im Bereich der Absorption der helikalen Polyacen-Hauptkette auch auf molekularer Ebene auftritt. Weiterhin wird die erfolgreiche Synthese eines neuen, heteroaromatischen Leiterpolymeren, LPPPT, beschrieben, welches alternierend aus 1,4-Phenylen- und 2,5-Thienylen-Einheiten aufgebaut ist. Eine LED in der Konfiguration ITO/LPPPT/Al zeigt eine orange Lichtemission. Die Quanteneffizienz der freien Ladungsträgerbildung für LPPPT wurde in Experimenten zur Ladungstraegergeneration im elektrischen Feld (Coronaentladung) zu ca. 1 % bei 10E7 V/m bestimmt. Letztlich wurde die Synthese eines neuen, heteroaromatischen Leiterpolymeren mit Carbazol-Einheiten, LPPPC, in der Hauptkette beschrieben, das alternierend aus 1,4-Phenylen- und Carbazol-3,6-diyl-Einheiten aufgebaut ist. Untersuchungen am LPPPC ergaben, daß das Polymer gute Lochleitereigenschaften besitzt, daneben weisen dünne Filme von LPPPC auch photovoltaische Eigenschaften auf.

Formtreue organische Makrocyclen mit polarem Innenraum

Zusammenfassung Die Arbeit beschreibt die Synthese und Eigenschaften von formtreuen organischen Makrocyclen mit intraannularen polaren Gruppen. Dabei wurden zunächst entsprechende bifunktionalisierte Acetylenbausteine (Halbringe) hergestellt, welche anschließend in einer oxidativen Glaser-Eglington Kupplung zu den Makrocyclen umgesetzt wurden.Am Anfang wurden Sulfonat-funktionalisierte Makrocyclen untersucht. Diese ließen sich mittels der Templatmethode in hohen Ausbeuten synthetisieren. Nach der Abspaltung des Templatbausteins, der gleichzeitig als Schutzgruppe für die Sulfonsäure diente, erhielt man den entsprechenden Makrocyclus als Tetra-n-butylammonium-Salz. Vor dem Hintergrund ionenleitfähige Materialien zu erhalten, wurde anschließend das organische Kation durch anorganische Kationen (z.B. Li+, Na+) ausgetauscht. Dies führte jedoch zur Bildung unlöslicher Produkte, die sich nicht eindeutig charakterisierten ließen.Ein anderer Ansatz zu löslichen Makrocyclen mit polarem Innenraum zu gelangen war die Synthese eines Dipeptid-funktionalisierten Makrocyclus. Dies geschah im Hinblick auf die eventuelle Eignung der Makrocyclen als Rezeptormoleküle für Gäste biologischen Ursprungs. Dabei ließen sich die entsprechenden Dipeptid-funktionalisierten Halbringe auf einfache Weise darstellen, jedoch trat bei der anschließenden Glaser-Kupplung, wahrscheinlich bedingt durch den hohen molaren Überschuß an Kupfersalzen, als Hauptreaktion die Abspaltung des Peptidrests auf. Daher wurde sich nun der Carbonsäuregruppe als polaren Baustein im Inneren der Ringe zugewandt. Diese sollten eine anschließende Peptidankupplung zulassen.Es wurden vier verschiedene Makrocyclen mit intraannularen Carboxylatgruppen synthetisiert. Auch hier waren die Makrocyclen in Form ihrer Methylester noch gut, in Form der Säuren oder deren Salze oftmals nur noch sehr gering löslich. Um die Löslichkeit zu verbessern, wurde dabei die Polaritätsverteilung am Ring (polarer Innenraum, unpolarer Außenraum) durch das Anbringen von löslichkeits-vermittelnden Gruppen zum Teil aufgegeben. Dabei hat sich gezeigt, daß es erst durch die Verwendung von verzweigten (S)-Methylbutoxy-Gruppen innerhalb des Rings oder langen Alkoxyketten außerhalb des Rings möglich war, zu löslichen Systemen zu gelangen. Im ersten Fall ist es zum ersten Mal gelungen, einen löslichen Makrocyclus mit zwei freien intra-annnularen Carbonsäuregruppen zu erhalten. Durch die Optimierung der Syntheseroute ist es nunmehr möglich, den Ring im Grammmaßstab herzustellen. Außerdem wurden als Testreaktion beide Säuregruppen mit Methylamin zum Säureamid vollständig umgesetzt. Somit wurde ein System entwickelt, an das sich in Zukunft beliebige Aminosäuren an den Ring anbinden lassen sollten. Zusätzlich sollte sich die Chiralität der (S)-Methylbutoxygruppen auf das Erkennen von chiralen Gästen auswirken.Im zweiten Fall wurden durch das Anbringen von vier Tris(hexadecyloxy)-benzol- oder Tris(dodecyloxy)-benzol- Gruppen an der Peripherie der Ringe nach Hydrolyse der Methylestergruppen ebenfalls lösliche, Carboxylat-funktionalisierte Makrocyclen erhalten. Eine eingehende Untersuchung der Methylester-geschützten Ringe ergab, daß diese beim Schmelzen das Auftreten einer thermotropen flüssigkristallinen Phase zeigen. Die Natur der Mesophase konnte mittels Polarisations-Lichtmikroskopie sowie Röntgenbeugungsmethoden eindeutig als kolumnar-schiefwinklig (colob) charakterisiert werden. Hierbei ist zu bemerken, daß bei ähnlichen Makrocyclen, die über keinen polar gefüllten Innenraum verfügen, keine Mesophase auftritt. Das bedeutet, daß die Raumerfüllung im Inneren der Makrocyclen, bedingt durch die polaren Gruppen, zur Ausbildung einer flüssigkristallinen Phase unbedingt notwendig ist.