Artisanal containers and transportation for smoke-dried fish in Nigeria

The packaging containers and means of transportation for Nigerian smoke-dried fish from harvesting all through the post-harvest chain were described. Sacks, paper cartons, wooden rackets, cane and bamboo baskets were predominantly used packaging containers. Means of transportation ranged from wheelbarrows, motorcycle, lorries, to pick-up vehicles and trucks. The major area of improvement is seen in packaging at the wholesale level. To overcome the constraints within the system, both the public and private sectors must provide effective services that benefit fishermen, processors, wholesalers, retailers, organisation and other key participants that make the work. Suggestions for reducing post harvest losses and improving the efficiency of the existing distribution system, based on the various need of the stake holders and the socio-cultural settings of the application were proffered

Distributed optimization in power networks and general multi-agent systems

The dissertation studies the general area of complex networked systems that consist of interconnected and active heterogeneous components and usually operate in uncertain environments and with incomplete information. Problems associated with those systems are typically large-scale and computationally intractable, yet they are also very well-structured and have features that can be exploited by appropriate modeling and computational methods. The goal of this thesis is to develop foundational theories and tools to exploit those structures that can lead to computationally-efficient and distributed solutions, and apply them to improve systems operations and architecture.

Specifically, the thesis focuses on two concrete areas. The first one is to design distributed rules to manage distributed energy resources in the power network. The power network is undergoing a fundamental transformation. The future smart grid, especially on the distribution system, will be a large-scale network of distributed energy resources (DERs), each introducing random and rapid fluctuations in power supply, demand, voltage and frequency. These DERs provide a tremendous opportunity for sustainability, efficiency, and power reliability. However, there are daunting technical challenges in managing these DERs and optimizing their operation. The focus of this dissertation is to develop scalable, distributed, and real-time control and optimization to achieve system-wide efficiency, reliability, and robustness for the future power grid. In particular, we will present how to explore the power network structure to design efficient and distributed market and algorithms for the energy management. We will also show how to connect the algorithms with physical dynamics and existing control mechanisms for real-time control in power networks.

The second focus is to develop distributed optimization rules for general multi-agent engineering systems. A central goal in multiagent systems is to design local control laws for the individual agents to ensure that the emergent global behavior is desirable with respect to the given system level objective. Ideally, a system designer seeks to satisfy this goal while conditioning each agent’s control on the least amount of information possible. Our work focused on achieving this goal using the framework of game theory. In particular, we derived a systematic methodology for designing local agent objective functions that guarantees (i) an equivalence between the resulting game-theoretic equilibria and the system level design objective and (ii) that the resulting game possesses an inherent structure that can be exploited for distributed learning, e.g., potential games. The control design can then be completed by applying any distributed learning algorithm that guarantees convergence to the game-theoretic equilibrium. One main advantage of this game theoretic approach is that it provides a hierarchical decomposition between the decomposition of the systemic objective (game design) and the specific local decision rules (distributed learning algorithms). This decomposition provides the system designer with tremendous flexibility to meet the design objectives and constraints inherent in a broad class of multiagent systems. Furthermore, in many settings the resulting controllers will be inherently robust to a host of uncertainties including asynchronous clock rates, delays in information, and component failures.

Ausência de correlação entre a penetração do cimento AH Plus nos túbulos dentinários e a qualidade do selamento

O presente estudo objetivou testar experimentalmente a existência da possível correlação entre a penetração de cimento nos túbulos dentinários e a qualidade do selamento. Foram utilizados 60 incisivos centrais superiores humanos que formaram um único grupo experimental. Após a eliminação das porções coronárias, as raízes foram padronizadas em 13 mm de comprimento. A instrumentação dos canais foi realizada no sentido coroa-ápice, e o comprimento de trabalho estabelecido a 1 mm aquém do forame apical. Como solução irrigadora foi empregado o NaOCl a 5,25% e ao final, EDTA a 17%. Em seguida, todos os canais foram obturados com guta-percha e cimento AH Plus marcado com um corante fluorescente. Para determinar a qualidade do selamento das obturações endodônticas, as amostras foram submetidas ao modelo de infiltração de glicose sob pressão. As raízes foram montadas em um dispositivo de dupla-câmara selada para permitir a infiltração da glicose. Como controle negativo foram utilizados 4 dentes hígidos, e como controle positivo, 2 dentes instrumentados porém, não obturados. Foram utilizados 0,75 mL de solução de glicose a 1 mol/L na câmara superior e 0,75 mL de água deionizada na câmara inferior. Os dispositivos foram conectados a um sistema de distribuição de pressão desenvolvido com o objetivo de permitir a infiltração de 32 amostras em uma mesma etapa. A solução de glicose foi forçada apicalmente sob uma pressão de 15 psi durante 1 hora. Uma alíquota de 50 L foi coletada da câmara inferior para quantificar a glicose infiltrada. A concentração de glicose foi determinada através de um método enzimático com o auxílio do Kit Glucose HK e de um espectrofotômetro em um comprimento de onda de 340 nm. Na sequência, as amostras foram desacopladas dos corpos de prova, embutidas em resina epóxi e cortadas em 3 secções transversais. Uma sequência de preparação metalográfica padrão foi realizada para permitir a observação da penetração de cimento nos túbulos dentinários por meio de microscopia confocal e óptica. Os dados obtidos nos 2 experimentos foram cruzados pelo teste de correlação de Spearman, o qual revelou a inexistência de qualquer possibilidade de correlação (r = 0,12). Com base nesses resultados, o presente trabalho concluiu que, dentro das condições experimentais usadas, a quantidade de cimento presente dentro dos túbulos dentinários não teve relação com a qualidade do selamento produzido.

Freshwater prawn fry production and delivery process: key to sustainable aquaculture development for Bangladesh

This study was conducted to identify a functioning fingerlings production and delivery system for a sustainable aquaculture development. Data were collected from 234 respondents randomly sampled from a population of 600 fish farmers. Results indicated that farmer-to-farmer was the major source of fingerlings production and distribution system. Although this source accessed disadvantaged groups like the rural based, resource poor, less educated and women, it lacked knowledge on how to produce good quality fingerlings. These results suggest that a decentralized and privatized fingerlings production and delivery system should be promoted. For this system to operate effectively the aquaculture department should first identify potential zones for aquaculture growth and profit motivated fingerlings producers and distributors. Furthermore, the institutional mechanism through which farmer-to-farmer will operate should be identified and strengthened through short and long term training programmes. The government should support the system by providing guidelines for good quality fingerlings management; maintain brood stock parents and technical training in Bangladesh.

Resistência à infiltração de glicose de quatro cimentos reparadores

O presente estudo teve como objetivo comparar a qualidade do selamento promovido por 3 cimentos reparadores endodônticos: Ceramicrete, iRoot-BP Plus e BioAggregate, com o ProRoot MTA branco, utilizando o modelo de infiltração de glicose sob pressão. 64 incisivos centrais superiores, recém-extraídos e sem tratamento endodôntico foram selecionados. A instrumentação do canal radicular foi realizada em todos os dentes com brocas Gates-Glidden e limas K-Flexofile (Dentsply Maillefer, Ballaigues Suíça), 1mm aquém do ápice. A patência foraminal foi confirmada a cada instrumento usado. Os dentes tiveram suas coroas removidas padronizando-os em 15mm de comprimento. Foi realizada apicetomia a 3mm do ápice e o preparo da cavidade retrógrada com o auxílio do ultrassom Various 350 (NSKNakanishi Inc., Tóquio, Japão) e da ponta E32D (NSKNakanishi Inc., Tóquio, Japão). As raízes foram distribuídas, randomicamente, em quatro grupos experimentais (n=15): G1Ceramicrete, G2iRoot BP Plus, G3BioAggregate e G4ProRoot MTA branco. Como controle negativo (n=2) foram utilizados dentes hígidos, e como controle positivo (n=2), dentes acessados e com patência confirmada. Os cimentos reparadores foram manipulados seguindo as recomendações do fabricante e inseridos na cavidade retrógrada utilizando a mesma ponta ultrassônica usada no preparo. As amostras foram mantidas na presença de umidade por 72h para o completo endurecimento dos materiais. As raízes foram montadas em um dispositivo de dupla-câmara selada para a infiltração da glicose. Foram utilizados 0,75ml de solução de glicose a 1Mol/L na câmara superior e 0,75ml de água destilada na câmara inferior. Os dispositivos foram conectados a um sistema de distribuição de pressão, que permitiu a infiltração de 32 amostras em uma mesma etapa. A solução de glicose foi forçada apicalmente sob uma pressão de 15psi durante 1 hora. Uma alíquota de 10l foi coletada da câmara inferior para quantificar a glicose infiltrada. A concentração de glicose foi determinada com o auxílio do Kit GlucoseHK (Megazyme, Wicklow, Irlanda) e de um espectrofotômetro de luz visível (Campsec M330, Cambridge, Reino Unido) em um comprimento de onda de 340nm. O teste não-paramétrico Kruskal-Wallis e o teste Dunns foram utilizados na análise estatística. Os resultados encontrados demonstraram que houve diferença significativa entre os grupos experimentais (p=0,0036). O BioAggregate apresentou a maior concentração de glicose-1,85(g/L), seguido do ProRoot MTA-1,2; IRoot BP-0,85 e Ceramicrete-0,75. Não houve diferença entre os três novos cimentos reparadores e o material padrão-ouro (p>0,05). Não houve diferença entre Ceramicrete e iRoot BP Plus (p>0,05), porém estes foram estatisticamente diferentes do BioAggregate (p<0,05). Diante dos resultados obtidos, pode-se concluir que: nenhum dos cimentos testados foi capaz de promover selamento hermético; os três novos cimentos testados não revelaram o mesmo padrão de selamento; os três novos cimentos testados revelaram um padrão de selamento semelhante a do ProRoot MTA branco; e o Ceramicrete e o iRoot BP Plus apresentaram padrão de selamento superior em comparação com o BioAggregate.

Distributed Control and Optimization for Communication and Power Systems

We are at the cusp of a historic transformation of both communication system and electricity system. This creates challenges as well as opportunities for the study of networked systems. Problems of these systems typically involve a huge number of end points that require intelligent coordination in a distributed manner. In this thesis, we develop models, theories, and scalable distributed optimization and control algorithms to overcome these challenges.

This thesis focuses on two specific areas: multi-path TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and electricity distribution system operation and control. Multi-path TCP (MP-TCP) is a TCP extension that allows a single data stream to be split across multiple paths. MP-TCP has the potential to greatly improve reliability as well as efficiency of communication devices. We propose a fluid model for a large class of MP-TCP algorithms and identify design criteria that guarantee the existence, uniqueness, and stability of system equilibrium. We clarify how algorithm parameters impact TCP-friendliness, responsiveness, and window oscillation and demonstrate an inevitable tradeoff among these properties. We discuss the implications of these properties on the behavior of existing algorithms and motivate a new algorithm Balia (balanced linked adaptation) which generalizes existing algorithms and strikes a good balance among TCP-friendliness, responsiveness, and window oscillation. We have implemented Balia in the Linux kernel. We use our prototype to compare the new proposed algorithm Balia with existing MP-TCP algorithms.

Our second focus is on designing computationally efficient algorithms for electricity distribution system operation and control. First, we develop efficient algorithms for feeder reconfiguration in distribution networks. The feeder reconfiguration problem chooses the on/off status of the switches in a distribution network in order to minimize a certain cost such as power loss. It is a mixed integer nonlinear program and hence hard to solve. We propose a heuristic algorithm that is based on the recently developed convex relaxation of the optimal power flow problem. The algorithm is efficient and can successfully computes an optimal configuration on all networks that we have tested. Moreover we prove that the algorithm solves the feeder reconfiguration problem optimally under certain conditions. We also propose a more efficient algorithm and it incurs a loss in optimality of less than 3% on the test networks.

Second, we develop efficient distributed algorithms that solve the optimal power flow (OPF) problem on distribution networks. The OPF problem determines a network operating point that minimizes a certain objective such as generation cost or power loss. Traditionally OPF is solved in a centralized manner. With increasing penetration of volatile renewable energy resources in distribution systems, we need faster and distributed solutions for real-time feedback control. This is difficult because power flow equations are nonlinear and kirchhoff's law is global. We propose solutions for both balanced and unbalanced radial distribution networks. They exploit recent results that suggest solving for a globally optimal solution of OPF over a radial network through a second-order cone program (SOCP) or semi-definite program (SDP) relaxation. Our distributed algorithms are based on the alternating direction method of multiplier (ADMM), but unlike standard ADMM-based distributed OPF algorithms that require solving optimization subproblems using iterative methods, the proposed solutions exploit the problem structure that greatly reduce the computation time. Specifically, for balanced networks, our decomposition allows us to derive closed form solutions for these subproblems and it speeds up the convergence by 1000x times in simulations. For unbalanced networks, the subproblems reduce to either closed form solutions or eigenvalue problems whose size remains constant as the network scales up and computation time is reduced by 100x compared with iterative methods.

Viruses and drinking water

There is no evidence to indicate that there is a risk of acquiring a virus infection through the consumption of properly treated drinking water, provided the integrity of the distribution system is maintained and there is no post-treatment contamination. The consumption of inadequately treated, untreated or post-treatment contaminated water is, however, associated with a risk of hepatitis A, hepatitis E and viral gastroenteritis. The use of the standard bacterial indicators for water monitoring provides an adequate safeguard against viral contamination.

Detecção e classificação de VTCDs em sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica usando redes neurais artificiais.

O objetivo deste trabalho é conhecer e compreender melhor os imprevistos no fornecimento de energia elétrica, quando ocorrem as variações de tensão de curta duração (VTCD). O banco de dados necessário para os diagnósticos das faltas foi obtido através de simulações de um modelo de alimentador radial através do software PSCAD/EMTDC. Este trabalho utiliza um Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) com o intuito de detectar VTCDs e realizar a estimativa automática da frequência, do ângulo de fase e da amplitude das tensões e correntes da rede elétrica. Nesta pesquisa, desenvolveram-se duas redes neurais artificiais: uma para identificar e outra para localizar as VTCDs ocorridas no sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica. A técnica aqui proposta aplica-se a alimentadores trifásicos com cargas desequilibradas, que podem possuir ramais laterais trifásicos, bifásicos e monofásicos. No desenvolvimento da mesma, considera-se que há disponibilidade de medições de tensões e correntes no nó inicial do alimentador e também em alguns pontos esparsos ao longo do alimentador de distribuição. Os desempenhos das arquiteturas das redes neurais foram satisfatórios e demonstram a viabilidade das RNAs na obtenção das generalizações que habilitam o sistema para realizar a classificação de curtos-circuitos.

Erretiroaren pentsioa eta adinez langile nagusien lan-bizitzaren luzamena

[Pentsio-sistema honela antolatzen da: lehen maila, kotizaziopeko pentsioak jasotzen ez dituztenei pentsioak ordaintzera bideratzen da; bigarren maila, Gizarte Segurantza edo kotizaziopeko pentsioena da; hirugarren maila, borondatezko gizarte-aurreikuspen osagarriari dagokio Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoan eta pentsio-planei Espainian. Bigarren mailan, Gizarte Segurantza banaketa-sisteman oinarritzen da. 2050ean erretiro-pentsioak finantzatzeko arazoak egotea espero da. Etorkizuneko egoerari aurre egiteko, 27/2011 Legearen eta 5/2013 Errege Lege Dekretuaren bitartez, erreformak burutu dira. Hirugarren mailan, Euskal Autonomia Erkidegoan gizarte-aurreikuspen osagarria Eusko Jaurlaritzaren esku dago eta Borondatezko Aurreikuspen Sozialeko Erakundeen (BASE) aurreikuspen-planak bertako pentsio-plan propioak dira. Lan honetan, batez ere, pentsio-sistemaren bigarren eta hirugarren mailak aztertuko ditut. Lehenengo marko teorikoa, ondoren alde praktikoa, eta azkenean datuetan oinarrituz proposamen batzuk eman eta ondorioak aterako ditut.]

Implementação distribuída de auto-cura em redes inteligentes de distribuição de energia elétrica utilizando árvores de extensão mínima.

A propriedade de auto-cura, em redes inteligente de distribuição de energia elétrica, consiste em encontrar uma proposta de reconfiguração do sistema de distribuição com o objetivo de recuperar parcial ou totalmente o fornecimento de energia aos clientes da rede, na ocorrência de uma falha na rede que comprometa o fornecimento. A busca por uma solução satisfatória é um problema combinacional cuja complexidade está ligada ao tamanho da rede. Um método de busca exaustiva se torna um processo muito demorado e muitas vezes computacionalmente inviável. Para superar essa dificuldade, pode-se basear nas técnicas de geração de árvores de extensão mínima do grafo, representando a rede de distribuição. Porém, a maioria dos estudos encontrados nesta área são implementações centralizadas, onde proposta de reconfiguração é obtida por um sistema de supervisão central. Nesta dissertação, propõe-se uma implementação distribuída, onde cada chave da rede colabora na elaboração da proposta de reconfiguração. A solução descentralizada busca uma redução no tempo de reconfiguração da rede em caso de falhas simples ou múltiplas, aumentando assim a inteligência da rede. Para isso, o algoritmo distribuído GHS é utilizado como base na elaboração de uma solução de auto-cura a ser embarcada nos elementos processadores que compõem as chaves de comutação das linhas da rede inteligente de distribuição. A solução proposta é implementada utilizando robôs como unidades de processamento que se comunicam via uma mesma rede, constituindo assim um ambiente de processamento distribuído. Os diferentes estudos de casos testados mostram que, para redes inteligentes de distribuição compostas por um único alimentador, a solução proposta obteve sucesso na reconfiguração da rede, indiferentemente do número de falhas simultâneas. Na implementação proposta, o tempo de reconfiguração da rede não depende do número de linhas nela incluídas. A implementação apresentou resultados de custo de comunicação e tempo dentro dos limites teóricos estabelecidos pelo algoritmo GHS.

Localização de faltas de curta duração em redes de distribuição.

O objetivo deste trabalho é contribuir com o desenvolvimento de uma técnica baseada em sistemas inteligentes que possibilite a localização exata ou aproximada do ponto de origem de uma Variação de Tensão de Curta Duração (VTCD) (gerada por uma falta) em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica. Este trabalho utiliza um Phase-Locked Loop (PLL) com o intuito de detectar as faltas. Uma vez que a falta é detectada, os sinais de tensão obtidos durante a falta são decompostos em componentes simétricas instantâneas por meio do método proposto. Em seguida, as energias das componentes simétricas são calculadas e utilizadas para estimar a localização da falta. Nesta pesquisa, são avaliadas duas estruturas baseadas em Redes Neurais Artificiais (RNAs). A primeira é projetada para classificar a localização da falta em um dos pontos possíveis e a segunda é projetada para estimar a distância da falta ao alimentador. A técnica aqui proposta aplica-se a alimentadores trifásicos com cargas equilibradas. No desenvolvimento da mesma, considera-se que há disponibilidade de medições de tensões no nó inicial do alimentador e também em pontos esparsos ao longo da rede de distribuição. O banco de dados empregado foi obtido através de simulações de um modelo de alimentador radial usando o programa PSCAD/EMTDC. Testes de sensibilidade empregando validação-cruzada são realizados em ambas as arquiteturas de redes neurais com o intuito de verificar a confiabilidade dos resultados obtidos. Adicionalmente foram realizados testes com faltas não inicialmente contidas no banco de dados a fim de se verificar a capacidade de generalização das redes. Os desempenhos de ambas as arquiteturas de redes neurais foram satisfatórios e demonstram a viabilidade das técnicas propostas para realizar a localização de faltas em redes de distribuição.

Comparison of deterministic, stochastic and fuzzy logic uncertainty modelling for capacity extension projects of DI/WFI pharmaceutical plant utilities with variable/dynamic demand

The last 30 years have seen Fuzzy Logic (FL) emerging as a method either complementing or challenging stochastic methods as the traditional method of modelling uncertainty. But the circumstances under which FL or stochastic methods should be used are shrouded in disagreement, because the areas of application of statistical and FL methods are overlapping with differences in opinion as to when which method should be used. Lacking are practically relevant case studies comparing these two methods. This work compares stochastic and FL methods for the assessment of spare capacity on the example of pharmaceutical high purity water (HPW) utility systems. The goal of this study was to find the most appropriate method modelling uncertainty in industrial scale HPW systems. The results provide evidence which suggests that stochastic methods are superior to the methods of FL in simulating uncertainty in chemical plant utilities including HPW systems in typical cases whereby extreme events, for example peaks in demand, or day-to-day variation rather than average values are of interest. The average production output or other statistical measures may, for instance, be of interest in the assessment of workshops. Furthermore the results indicate that the stochastic model should be used only if found necessary by a deterministic simulation. Consequently, this thesis concludes that either deterministic or stochastic methods should be used to simulate uncertainty in chemical plant utility systems and by extension some process system because extreme events or the modelling of day-to-day variation are important in capacity extension projects. Other reasons supporting the suggestion that stochastic HPW models are preferred to FL HPW models include: 1. The computer code for stochastic models is typically less complex than a FL models, thus reducing code maintenance and validation issues. 2. In many respects FL models are similar to deterministic models. Thus the need for a FL model over a deterministic model is questionable in the case of industrial scale HPW systems as presented here (as well as other similar systems) since the latter requires simpler models. 3. A FL model may be difficult to "sell" to an end-user as its results represent "approximate reasoning" a definition of which is, however, lacking. 4. Stochastic models may be applied with some relatively minor modifications on other systems, whereas FL models may not. For instance, the stochastic HPW system could be used to model municipal drinking water systems, whereas the FL HPW model should or could not be used on such systems. This is because the FL and stochastic model philosophies of a HPW system are fundamentally different. The stochastic model sees schedule and volume uncertainties as random phenomena described by statistical distributions based on either estimated or historical data. The FL model, on the other hand, simulates schedule uncertainties based on estimated operator behaviour e.g. tiredness of the operators and their working schedule. But in a municipal drinking water distribution system the notion of "operator" breaks down. 5. Stochastic methods can account for uncertainties that are difficult to model with FL. The FL HPW system model does not account for dispensed volume uncertainty, as there appears to be no reasonable method to account for it with FL whereas the stochastic model includes volume uncertainty.

Techniques for multiple-set synchronous islanding control

Power system islanding can improve the continuity of power supply. Synchronous islanded operation enables the islanded system to remain in phase with the main power system while not electrically connected, so avoiding out-of-synchronism re-closure. Specific consideration is required for the multiple-set scenario. In this paper a suitable island management system is proposed, with the emphasis being on maximum island flexibility by allowing passive islanding transitions to occur, facilitated by intelligent control. These transitions include: island detection, identification, fragmentation, merging and return-to-mains. It can be challenging to detect these transitions while maintaining syn-chronous islanded operation. The performance of this control system in the presence of a variable wind power in-feed is also examined. A Mathworks SimPowerSystems simulation is used to investigate the performance of the island management system. The benefit and requirements for energy storage, com-munications and distribution system protection for this application are considered.

The Biospheric Project - Manchester International Festival 2013:Technical food systems

The Biospheric Project is a nested multi-scalar urban agriculture project that aims to develop sustainable food systems in disadvantaged communities, though not only physical interventions, such as the urban masterplan and neighbourhood design to the building and its roof and façade, but also through social and commercial interventions, such as community involvement, businesses and a distribution system.

The project is focused around the Biospheric Foundation, a community interest company and research think-tank whose aim is to hasten our transition to a closed cycle, low-carbon economy. Its home is Irwell house, that houses a large-scale aquaponic-based food production system, which is directly linked to a whole-food shop (78 Steps, named after the distance from the productive system) and a whole food distribution system (the Whole Box). The building sits within a post-industrial landscape which is being developed into a new productive landscape, utilizing the the technologies developed by the Biospheric Foundation and Prof Greg Keeffe of Queens University Belfast. The collaboration links designer, academics and activists across the disciplines of Urban design, Architecture, Permaculture, landscape design, environmental science and business and community.

Computational scheduling methods for integrating plug-in electric vehicles with power systems: a review

Traditional internal combustion engine vehicles are a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions and other air pollutants, such as particulate matter and nitrogen oxides. If the tail pipe point emissions could be managed centrally without reducing the commercial and personal user functionalities, then one of the most attractive solutions for achieving a significant reduction of emissions in the transport sector would be the mass deployment of electric vehicles. Though electric vehicle sales are still hindered by battery performance, cost and a few other technological bottlenecks, focused commercialisation and support from government policies are encouraging large scale electric vehicle adoptions. The mass proliferation of plug-in electric vehicles is likely to bring a significant additional electric load onto the grid creating a highly complex operational problem for power system operators. Electric vehicle batteries also have the ability to act as energy storage points on the distribution system. This double charge and storage impact of many uncontrollable small kW loads, as consumers will want maximum flexibility, on a distribution system which was originally not designed for such operations has the potential to be detrimental to grid balancing. Intelligent scheduling methods if established correctly could smoothly integrate electric vehicles onto the grid. Intelligent scheduling methods will help to avoid cycling of large combustion plants, using expensive fossil fuel peaking plant, match renewable generation to electric vehicle charging and not overload the distribution system causing a reduction in power quality. In this paper, a state-of-the-art review of scheduling methods to integrate plug-in electric vehicles are reviewed, examined and categorised based on their computational techniques. Thus, in addition to various existing approaches covering analytical scheduling, conventional optimisation methods (e.g. linear, non-linear mixed integer programming and dynamic programming), and game theory, meta-heuristic algorithms including genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimisation, are all comprehensively surveyed, offering a systematic reference for grid scheduling considering intelligent electric vehicle integration.