Scanning electron microscopy of Aspidogaster ijimai Kawamura, 1913 and A-conchicola Baer, 1827 (Aspidogastrea, Aspidogastridae) with reference to their fish definitive-host specificity

Two species of aspidogastreans, namely Aspidogaster ijimai and A. conchicola, were studied by scanning electron microscopy. In nine lakes and an old river course, the Tian'ezhou oxbow, investigated in the flood plain of the Yangtze River, A. ijimai was obtained from the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in three lakes, and A. conchicola from the black carp Mylopharyngodon piceus in three lakes and the oxbow. In none of the localities, however, were the two species found together. It is suggested that A. ijimai may be considered as a specialist parasite for the common carp, at least in the flood-plain lakes of the Yangtze River. The two parasites were similar in many aspects of their morphology. Their bodies can both be separated into a dorsal part and a ventral disc, with the body surface of the dorsal part elevated by transverse folds, and the disc subdivided into alveoli by transverse and longitudinal septa, although the number of alveoli was different in the two species. The depression on the ventral surface of the neck region was prominent for both species, and their ventral disc was covered densely with non-ciliated bulbous papillae. The position of mouth, osmo-regulatory pore and marginal organ was also similar for A. ijimai and A. conchicola. However, microridges in the trough of the folds in the neck region and numerous small pits on the upper part of the septa were found exclusively in A. ijimai, but uniciliated sensory papillae in A. conchicola.

The distribution of monogenean parasites on aquatic vertebrates inhabiting Chinese inland waters

The general distribution of monogenean parasites of aquatic vertebrates inhabiting Chinese inland waters is summarised. Five hundred and seventy-two out of a total of 581 species of monogeneans were discovered on fish, while only nine species were found on Amphibia and Reptilia. Most dactylogyrids and diplozoids parasitise cyprinids, while ancyrocephalids occur on silurids and cyprinids, and gyrodactylids are found mainly on cyprinids and cobitids. Analyses of host-specificity and host-diversity suggests that the family Ancyrocephalidae should be divided into several families parallel with the Dactylogyridae. Of 12 subfamilies of the Cyprinidae, only the Gobiobotinae was found to be free of infection with monogeneans, and the genus Dactylogyrus has more species than any other monogenean genus associated with every cyprinid subfamily.

锄足蟾总科两栖类系统演化研究

以线粒体DNA 的16S、ND4 和细胞色素B 三个基因片段的为测序和计算的 对象，对锄足蟾总科Pelobatidea 的角蟾科Megophryidae、锄足蟾科Pelobatidae、 掘足蟾科Scaphiopidae 和合跗蟾科Pelodytidae 这4 个科现生的所有属（除小臂蟾 属Leptobrachella 外）和绝大部分物种进行了分子系统学研究。综合的研究结果 表明，4 个科在系统演化上都各自形成独立的支系，证明了目前形态分类系统的 合理性。其亲缘关系的顺序依次是：东南亚的角蟾科与欧洲、西亚和非洲西北部 的锄足蟾科最近，然后二者与欧洲的另一个科合跗蟾科相聚，最后与北美洲的掘 足蟾科相聚。分化的先后为：掘足蟾科最先分化出来，然后是合跗蟾科，再后为 锄足蟾科，最后为角蟾科。角蟾科的两个亚科（角蟾亚科Megophryinae 和拟髭 蟾亚科Leptobrachiinae）在系统演化上也分别形成各自的支系，证明国内对亚科 的划分是合理的。这两个亚科虽然大部分为同域分布，但分别向不同的方向独立 演化。对属间系统演化关系的研究表明，锄足蟾科为单属、合跗蟾科为单属，掘 足蟾科为2 属（掘足蟾属Scaphiopus 和旱掘蟾属Spea），均为有效属，但角蟾科 原来划分的几个属的分类地位需要调整。本研究从整体上对这些属的分子系统演 化关系进行了分析和讨论，并对各主要科属的种间分子系统演化关系进行了分 析。通过本次实验, 我在角蟾亚科的属种分化和拟髭蟾亚科各属的属间和属内系 统演化关系的研究方面，提出了一些新的认识。 上述该分子系统研究还参照了形态学系统发育的研究和核型的比较研究。并 根据地质、地理、气候和生态环境及物种习性的有关资料对该类群的系统演化过 程和机理进行了分析和讨论。

棘蛙族(Tribe Paini)精子形态结构及精巢年周期研究

棘蛙族(Tribe Paini)隶两栖纲(Amphibia)、无尾目(Anura)、蛙科(Ranidae)、叉舌蛙亚科(Dicroglossinae)，由棘蛙属(Paa)、倭蛙属(Nanorana) 和沙巴蛙属(Chaparana)构成（Dubois,1992）。由于特殊的形态特征和染色体核型，棘蛙族受到国内外学者的广泛重视和研究，但是到目前为止，棘蛙族的系统发育关系尚未明晰，族下属种的分类和归属问题还有待进一步研究和新的证据出现。本文通过光学显微镜、电子显微镜和石蜡切片对棘蛙族10 物种的精子和精巢进行研究，旨在了解棘蛙族精子的形态、量度、超微结构特征及不同季节精巢结构的变化规律，同时为棘蛙族的系统研究提供新的依据，也为棘蛙族濒危物种的保护和经济物种的繁殖提供基础资料。研究结果表明：棘蛙族各属物种精子的形态基本相似，精子整体呈线形，由头部、中片和尾部构成。精子头部呈长条状，顶体呈锥状，位于头部顶端并向前伸出，中片较长，尾部波动弯曲。棘蛙族各属物种精子量度差异较大，将各属物种精子头部、中片、尾部、头宽、尾宽的量度数据进行聚类分析，结果表明棘蛙族10 物种可分为三类：第一类包括棘侧蛙、合江棘蛙、小棘蛙、棘腹蛙和棘胸蛙，特点是精子较短，全长在72.6～103.35µm 之间；第二类包括倭蛙、高山倭蛙、腹斑倭蛙，特点是精子较长，全长在107.74～129.75µm 之间；第三类包括隆肛蛙和双团棘胸蛙，特点是精子最长，全长在145.89～165.84µm 之间。棘蛙族各属精子超微结构基本相似：精子头部由顶体、细胞核构成；中片由中心粒、线粒体构成；尾部由单根轴丝构成。精子顶体横切呈圆环状，细胞核电子密度高；线粒体为卵圆形，呈环状围绕轴丝排列，线粒体数目较多，约30层；尾部轴丝为典型的9＋2结构，即由2根中央微管和9对外周微管组成。不同季节的倭蛙精巢结构变化表明倭蛙精巢每年只有一个生精周期，生精周期始于7 月，繁殖季节从5 月到6 月，生精高峰期为9 月；根据倭蛙不同季节精巢结构的变化，可将生精周期分为3 个阶段：第一阶段从7 月到9 月，为精子形成期；第二阶段从10 月到翌年4 月，为精子的贮存阶段，也即倭蛙的冬眠期；第三阶段从5 月到6 月，为精子的排放阶段，即倭蛙的繁殖期。不同季节的隆肛蛙精巢结构变化表明5 月为隆肛蛙的繁殖高峰期。根据棘蛙族各属精子的形态、量度和超微结构特征，结合已有的棘蛙族形态学、生态学、染色体核型及系统学研究成果，本文认为：1．基于精子数据对棘蛙族的划分和基于形态学及分子系统学数据对棘蛙族的划分均有相同之处，精子形态结构可为棘蛙族的系统研究提供新的证据。2． 棘蛙族各属精子的形态、量度及超微结构不仅与蛙科其他属种有明显差异，而且在无尾类中也较为特殊，精子学研究结果支持将棘蛙族从蛙科中分离出来，归隶于叉舌蛙科的叉舌蛙亚科的系统学修正。3. 精子的顶体、细胞核、中片的形态结构及量度可作为蛙科的分类指标。On the base of unique morphological and kyrotype characters, Dubois(1992)recognized three genera Paa, Narnorana, Chaparana as tribe Paini, which is amember of Dicroglossinae, Ranidae. In present study, the sperm shape, size andultrastructure of 10 paini species were investigated through the light and electronmicroscope, and testis structure of N. pleskei and F. quadrana was also studied. Wesuppose this study could offer some spermatological evidence to phylogeny andreproduction study of tribe Paini. The results were as follows:The sperm shape of tribe paini is homologically similar, the spermatozoa arefiliform, composed of elongate head, long mid-piece and waved tail. The acrosome isapically associated with the nucleus and extend anteriorly.The sperm length of tribe paini differ remarkably among genera. Cluster for thelength of sperm head, mid-piece, tail, total length, head-width, tail-width of ten painifrogs indicated the 10 species could be separated into three groups: GroupⅠcontainsP. shini, P. robertingeri, P. spinosa, P. exilispinosa, P. boulengeri, the spermatozoa ischaracterized with short in total length, ranging from 72.6µm to 103.35µm; GroupⅡcontains N. pleskei, N. parkeri, N. ventripunctata, the spermatozoa ischaracterized with relatively long in total length, ranging from 107.74µm to129.75µm; Group Ⅲ contains F. quadrana and P. yunnanensis, the spermatozoa is characterized with longest in total length, ranging from 145.89µm to 165.84µm. thethree groups based on spermatological data is partially match the classification basedon morphological and molecular data.The ultrastructure of spermatozoa in tribe paini is also basic similar, includingacrosome vescile, nuleus of the head proper, centriole, mitochondriol of themid-pieces, axoneme of the tail. The acrosome vescle is circle in TEM transversesection, the density of nucleus is high; The mitochondrions is oval, surrounding theaxial filament with about 30 layers of mitochondria; The axoneme has the typical 9+2pattern of microtubules.The seasonal changes in testis of N. pleskei indicates it has only onespermatogenesis circle, which begin in July, the reproduction season is from May toJune, the spermatogenesis is active in September. On the base of seasonal changes intestis, the spermatogenesis circle can be separated into three stages: In stageⅠfromJuly to September, spermatids are formed; In stage Ⅱ from October to April next year,the spermatozoa are stored in testis,which is the hibernated period; In stage Ⅲ fromMay to June, mature spermatozoa were released from the testis, which is thereproduction season of N. pleskei. As to F. quadrana, reproduction is active in May.With the previous study of morphology, ecology, karyotypes and phylogenyresearch of tribe Paini, the spermatological data in present study suggests:1. The spermatological classification of tribe paini is partially consistant with themorphological and molecular classification respectively.2.The sperm morphology and ultrustructure of tribe paini is unique not only inthe family Ranida but also in Anura, which suggest the tribe paini is monophyletic andmight be transfered from the family Ranida to the family Dicroglossidae based onmolecular evidence.3. The acrosome, nuleus, shape, length and ultrastructure of mid-piece can beused as an alternative taxonomic character in Anura.

Synecology in soft sediment bivalves: the influence of parasites, physiological processes, and environmental stressors on health and disease

Ecosystem goods and services provided by estuarine and near coastal regions are being increasingly recognised for their immense value, as is the biodiversity in these areas and these near coastal communities have been identified as sentinels of climate change also. Population structure and reproductive biology of two bivalve molluscs, Cerastoderma edule and, Mytilus edulis were assessed at two study sites over a 16-month study period. Following an anomalously harsh winter, advancement of spawning time was observed in both species. Throughout Ireland and Europe the cockle has experienced mass surfacings in geographically distinct regions, and a concurrent study of cockles was undertaken to explore this phenomenon. Surfaced and buried cockles were collected on a monthly basis and their health compared. Age was highlighted as a source of variation between dying and healthy animals with a parasite threshold being reached possibly around age three. Local factors dominated when looking at the cause of surfacing at each site. The health of mussels was explored too on a temporal and seasonal basis in an attempt to assess what constitutes a healthy organism. In essence external drivers can tip the balance between “acceptable” levels of infection where the mussel can still function physiologically and “unacceptable” where prevalence and intensity of infection can result in physiological impairment at the individual and population level. Synecological studies of intertidal ecosystems are lacking, so all bivalves encountered during the sampling were assessed in terms of population structure, reproduction, and health. It became clear, that some parasites might specialize on one host species while others are not so specific in host choice. Furthermore the population genetics of the cockle, its parasite Meiogymnophallus minutus, and its hyperparasite Unikaryon legeri were examined too. A small nucleotide polymorphism was detected upon comparison of Ireland and Morocco.

Structural and functional analogs of the novel mammalian neuropeptide, neuromedin S (NmS), in the dermal venoms of Eurasian bombinid toads.

We report the isolation and structural characterization of two neuromedin S (NmS) analogs, (NmS-17 and NmS-33), from the dermal venoms of Eurasian bombinid toads. NmS is a novel neuromedin U (NmU)-related peptide with potent anorexigenic and circadian rhythm-modulating properties recently discovered in mammals. Cloning of NmS precursor-encoding cDNAs from skin venom-derived libraries revealed the presence of a high degree of transcript splice variation comparable to that found previously for NmU in both amphibian skin and mammalian brain. Synthetic replicates of both amphibian NmS peptides evoked robust and dose-dependent transient increases in intracellular calcium ion concentrations in CHO cells that had been stably transfected with either FM-3/GPR66 or FM-4/TGR-1 human NmU receptors. The potency and efficacy of these amphibian skin peptides at such receptors were comparable to those observed with human NmS and rat NmS. These data show that NmS and NmU genes had already diverged at the level of the Amphibia and that differential splicing of their transcribed mRNAs has been highly conserved throughout tetrapod vertebrate evolution indicative of fundamental biological function. NmS is additionally a novel neuropeptide homolog that can be added to the biologically active peptide arsenal of amphibian venom/defensive skin secretions.

Development in vitro of the neuromusculature of two strigeid trematodes, Apatemon cobitidis proterorhini and Cotylurus erraticus

Confocal microscopy interfaced with cytochemical procedures has been used to monitor development of the major muscle systems and associated serotoninergic (5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine) and peptidergic (FaRP, FMRFamide-related peptide) innervation of the strigeid trematodes, Apatemon cobitidis proterorhini and Cotylurus erraticus during cultivation in vitro. Sexually undifferentiated metacercariae were successfully grown to ovigerous adults using tissue culture medium NCTC 135, chicken serum and egg albumen. Eggs were produced after 5 days in culture but had abnormal shells and failed to embryonate. 5-HT and FaRP (the flatworm FaRP, GYIRFamide) were localised immunocytochemically in both central and peripheral nervous systems of developing worms. During cultivation, the central serotoninergic and FaRPergic neuronal pathways of the forebody became more extensive, but retained the same basic orthogonal arrangement as found in the excysted metacercaria. Longitudinal extensor and flexor muscles of the hindbody provide support for the developing reproductive complex. The male reproductive tracts were established in advance (day 3) of those of the female system (day 4); completion of the latter was marked by the appearance of the ootype/egg chamber. The inner longitudinal muscle fibres of the female tract appeared prior to the outer and more densely arranged circular muscles. Circular fibres dominate the muscle complement of both alimentary and reproductive tracts. 5-HT- and GYIRFamide-immunoreactivities were demonstrable in the central nervous system (CNS) and subtegumental parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) throughout the culture period, but innervation of the developing reproductive structures was reactive just for 5-HT. Only at the onset of egg production was FaRP-IR observed in the reproductive system and was expressed only in the innervation of the ootype, a finding consistent with the view that FaRPs may regulate egg assembly in platyhelminths.

Distribution of the common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) and landscape favourability for the species in Northern Ireland

The common lizard (Zootoca vivipara) is Ireland’s only native reptile, forming a key part of the island’s biodiversity. However, there is a general paucity of distributional and abundance data for the species. In this study, we collated incidental records for common lizard sightings to define the distribution of the species in Northern Ireland. Maximum entropy modelling was employed to describe species-habitat associations. The resulting predicted landscape favourability was used to evaluate the current status of the species based on the distribution of its maximum potential range in relation to the degree of fragmentation of remaining suitable habitat. In common with previous studies in the Republic of Ireland, sightings were highly clustered indicating under-recording, observer bias, and fragmentation of suitable habitat. A total of 98 records were collated from 1905 to 2009. The species was recorded in 63 (ca. 34%) of 186 × 10 km Northern Irish grid squares. Lizard occurrence was strongly and positively associated with landscapes dominated by heathland, bog and coastal habitats. The single best approximating model correctly classified the presence of lizards in 84.2% of cases. Upland heath, lowland raised bog and sand dune systems are all subject to Habitat Action Plans in Northern Ireland and are threatened by conversion to agriculture, afforestation, invasive species encroachment and infrastructural development. Consequently, remaining common lizard populations are likely to be small, isolated and highly fragmented. Establishment of an ecological network to preserve connectivity of remaining heath and bog will not only benefit remaining common lizard populations but biodiversity in general.

GABA IN THE NERVOUS-SYSTEM OF PARASITIC FLATWORMS

In an immunocytochemical study, using an antiserum and a monoclonal antibody specific for the amino acid, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), GABA-like immunoreactivity (GLIR) has been demonstrated for the first time in parasitic flatworms. In Moniezia expansa (Cestoda), GLIR was seen in nerve nets which were closely associated with the body wall musculature and in the longitudinal nerve cords. In the liver fluke Fasciola hepatica (Trematoda), the GLIR occurred in the longitudinal nerve cords and lateral nerves in the posterior half of the worm. GLIR was also detected in subtegumental fibres in F. hepatica. The presence of GABA was verified, using high-pressure liquid chromatography coupled with fluorescence detection. The concentration of GABA (mean+/-S.D.) in M. expansa anterior region was 124.8+/-15.3 picomole/mg wet weight, while in F. hepatica it was 16.8+/-4.9 picomole/mg. Since several insecticides and anti-nematodal drugs are thought to interfere with GABA-receptors, the findings indicate that GABAergic neurotransmission may be a potential target for chemotherapy in flatworms too.

PEPTIDES RELATED TO THE DIPLOPTERA-PUNCTATA ALLATOSTATINS IN NONARTHROPOD INVERTEBRATES - AN IMMUNOCYTOCHEMICAL SURVEY

The allatostatins are a family of peptides isolated originally from the cockroach, Diploptera punctata. Related peptides have been identified in Periplaneta americana and the blowfly, Calliphora vomitoria. These peptides have been shown to be potent inhibitors of juvenile hormone synthesis in these species. A peptide inhibitor of juvenile hormone biosynthesis has also been isolated from the moth, Manduca sexta; however, this peptide has no structural homology with the D. punctata-type allatostatins. Investigations of the phylogeny of the D. punctata allatostatin peptide family have been started by examining a number of nonarthropod invertebrates for the presence of allatostatin-like molecules using immunocytochemistry with antisera directed against the conserved C-terminal region of this family. Allatostatin-like immunoreactivity (ALIR) was demonstrated in the nervous systems of Hydra oligactis (Hydrozoa), Moniezia expansa (Cestoda), Schistosoma mansoni (Trematoda), Artioposthia triangulata (Turbellaria), Ascaris suum (Nematoda), Lumbricus terrestris (Oligochaeta), Limax pseudoflavus (Gastropoda), and Eledone cirrhosa (Cephalopoda). ALIR could not be demonstrated in Ciona intestinalis (Ascidiacea). These results suggest that molecules related to the allatostatins may play an important role in nervous system function in many invertebrates as well as in insects and that they also have an ancient evolutionary lineage. (C) 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Fasciola hepatica: A light and electron microscope study of sustentacular tissue and heterophagy in the testis

In order to investigate cytolytic activity in the testis of Fasciola hepatica, flukes belonging to several different triclabendazole (TCBZ)-sensitive and TCBZ-resistant isolates, and wildtype flukes from field infections, were studied by light and electron microscopy with a view to identifying sites of heterophagy and macromolecular hydrolysis. At the periphery of the testis tubules in all the flukes examined, large euchromatic nuclei, each bearing a prominent nucleolus, were seen. These were invested with a thin cytoplasmic layer, extensions of which partially enveloped and probably supported the neighbouring spermatogonia. No lateral cell boundaries were identified in this tissue, possibly indicating syncytial organisation. The tissue, considered to be analogous to Sertoli cells in vertebrate testis, was identified as sustentacular tissue. It displayed cytoplasmic features consistent with protein/glycoprotein synthesis (through a granular endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi mediated mechanism) and intracellular digestion/heterophagy (through a lysosomal system). The intracytoplasmic hydrolytic activity of the sustentacular tissue probably serves to scavenge effete cells and cytoplasmic debris, to recycle useful molecules, to promote spermatozoon maturation and possibly to aid osmoregulation within the tubules. Certain protein-containing macromolecules synthesised in the sustentacular tissue may contribute to the seminiferous fluid, or have pheromonal activity. The presence of numerous mitochondria and abundant smooth endoplasmic reticulum is consistent with facilitation of inward and outward movement of micromolecular nutrients, metabolites including excretory products and water. In the sustentacular tissue of certain flukes with dysfunctional spermiogenesis, there was increased heterophagic and cytolytic scavenging activity. The cytoplasmic residual vacuoles remaining after the release of spermatids were also identified as possible sites for lysosome-mediated intracellular digestion and osmoregulation in the testis tubules of F. hepatica. (C) 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Neuromusculature of Gyrodactylus rysavyi, a monogenean gill and skin parasite of the catfish Clarias gariepinus

Phalloidin fluorescence technique, enzyme cytochemistry and immunocytochemistry in conjunction with confocal scanning laser microscopy were used for the first time to describe the nervous and muscle systems of the viviparous monogenean parasite, Gyrodactylus rysavyi inhabiting the gills and skin of the Nile catfish Clarias gariepinus. The body wall muscles are composed of an outer layer of circular fibres, an intermediate layer of paired longitudinal fibres and an inner layer of well-spaced bands of diagonal fibres arranged in two crossed directions. The musculature of the pharynx, intestine, reproductive tract and the most prominent muscles of the haptor were also described. Two characteristic muscular pads were found lying in the anterior region of the haptor in close contact with the hamuli. To each one of these pads, a group of ventral extrinsic muscles was connected. The role of this ventral extrinsic muscle in the body movement was discussed. The mechanism operating the marginal hooklets was also discussed. The central nervous system (CNS) consists of paired cerebral ganglia from which three pairs of longitudinal ventral, lateral and dorsal nerve cords arise. The nerve cords are connected at intervals by many transverse connectives. The CNS is better developed ventrally than dorsally or laterally and it has the highest reactivity for all neuroactive substances examined. Both the central and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are bilaterally symmetrical. Structural and functional correlates of the neuromusculature of the pharynx, haptor and reproductive tracts were explained. The results implicated acetylcholine, FMRFamide-related peptides (FaRPs) and serotonin in sensory and motor function. The results were compared with those of the monogeneans Macrogyrodactylus clarii and M. congolensis inhabiting the gills and skin respectively of the same host fish C. gariepinus.

Ultrastructure of head organs (anterior adhesive apparatus) and posterior secretory systems of Caballeria liewi Lim, 1995 (Monogenea, Ancyrocephalidae)

Caballeria liewi Lim, 1995, uses adhesive secretions from the head organs and posterior secretory systems to assist in locomotion and attachment. Ultrastructural investigations show that the head organs of C. liewi consist of three pairs of antero-lateral pit-like openings bearing microvilli and ducts leading from two types of uninucleated gland cells (located lateral to the pharynx), one type producing rod-like (S1) bodies with an electron-dense matrix containing less electron-dense vesicles and the second type producing oval (S2) bodies with a homogeneous electron-dense matrix. Interlinking band-like structures are observed between S1 bodies and between S2 bodies. S1 body is synthesised in the granular endoplasmic reticulum, transported to a Golgi complex to be packaged into vesicles and routed into ducts for exudation. The synthesis of the S2 body is unresolved. Haptoral secretions manifested externally as net-like structures are derived from dual electron-dense (DED) secretory body produced in the peduncular gland cells. The DED body consists of a less electron-dense oval core in a homogeneous electron-dense matrix. On exocytosis into the pyriform haptoral reservoir, DED bodies are transformed into a secretion with two types of inclusions (less electron-dense oval and electron-dense spherical inclusions) in an electron-dense matrix. The secretions are further transformed (as small, oval, electron-dense bodies) when transported to the superficial anchor grooves, and on exudation into the gill tissues, the secretions become an electron-dense matrix. Secretory bodies associated with uniciliated structures, anchor sleeves and marginal hooks are also observed.

Nuevas tendencias internacionales de la cooperación internacional y la conservación de la biodiversidad: Afectación local y retos institucionales para su financiamiento

No es un misterio que la cooperación internacional está siendo ampliamente revisada por los donantes, especialmente de Europa y Estados Unidos, debido a las crisis que están sufriendo dichas economías, y que exigen mayor concentración de esfuerzos en resolver los problemas internos y dejar para un segundo plano la Ayuda Oficial para el Desarrollo (AOD). En este contexto, la cooperación para la investigación científica y técnica en materia de biodiversidad se torna en un reto para ser alcanzado a través de los mecanismos tradicionales.Ante esta coyuntura, la incorporación de prácticas de mercadeo en el sector ambiental del país debe ser considerada como una alternativa para que los institutos ambientales de Colombia, logren generar recursos propios y poder así, facilitar el cumplimiento de acuerdos internacionales como las Metas Aichi.

Hijos del parásito.

Programa emitido el 12 de enero de 1995