Medial prefrontal cortex control of the paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus response to psychological stress : possible role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) has been strongly implicated in control of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) response to stress. Because of the paucity of direct projections from the mPFC to the PVN, we sought to investigate possible brain regions that might act as a relay between the two during psychological stress. Bilateral ibotenic acid lesions of the rat mPFC enhanced the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells seen in the PVN after exposure to the psychological stressor, air puff. Altered neuronal recruitment was seen in only one of the candidate relay populations examined, the ventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (vBNST). Furthermore, bilateral ibotenic acid lesions of the BNST caused a significant attenuation of the PVN response to air puff. To better characterize the structural relationships between the mPFC and PVN, retrograde tracing studies were conducted examining Fos expression in cells retrogradely labeled with cholera toxin b subunit (CTb) from the PVN and the BNST. Results obtained were consistent with an important role for both the mPFC and BNST in the mpPVN CRF cell response to air puff. We suggest a set of connections whereby a direct PVN projection from the ipsilateral vBNST is involved in the mpPVN response to air puff and this may, in turn, be modulated by an indirect projection from the mPFC to the BNST.

Medial prefrontal cortex suppression of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to a physical stressor, systemic delivery of interleukin-1β

Previous studies have shown that the medial prefrontal cortex can suppress the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to stress. However, this effect appears to vary with the type of stressor. Furthermore, the absence of direct projections between the medial prefrontal cortex and corticotropin-releasing factor cells at the apex of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis suggest that other brain regions must act as a relay when this inhibitory mechanism is activated. In the present study, we first established that electrolytic lesions involving the prelimbic and infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex increased plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone levels seen in response to a physical stressor, the systemic delivery of interleukin-1β. However, medial prefrontal cortex lesions did not alter plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone levels seen in response to a psychological stressor, noise. To identify brain regions that might mediate the effect of medial prefrontal cortex lesions on hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis responses to systemic interleukin-1β, we next mapped the effects of similar lesions on interleukin-1β-induced Fos expression in regions previously shown to regulate the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis response to this stressor. It was found that medial prefrontal cortex lesions reduced the number of Fos-positive cells in the ventral aspect of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. However, the final experiment, which involved combining retrograde tracing with Fos immunolabelling, revealed that bed nucleus of the stria terminalis-projecting medial prefrontal cortex neurons were largely separate from medial prefrontal cortex neurons recruited by systemic interleukin-1β, an outcome that is difficult to reconcile with a simple medial prefrontal cortex–bed nucleus of the stria terminalis–corticotropin-releasing factor cell control circuit.

Repeated social defeat selectively increases ΔFosB expression and histone H3 acetylation in the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex

Exposure to social stress has been linked to the development and maintenance of mood-related psychopathology; however, the underlying neurobiological changes remain uncertain. In this study, we examined numbers of ΔFosB-immunoreactive cells in the forebrains of rats subjected to 12 episodes of social defeat. This was achieved using the social conflict model whereby animals are introduced into the home cage of older males (“residents”) trained to attack and defeat all such “intruders”; importantly, controls were treated identically except that the resident was absent. Our results indicated that the only region in which ΔFosB-positive cells were found in significantly higher numbers in intruders than in controls was the infralimbic medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). This same effect was not apparent using another psychological stressor, noise stress. Cells of the infralimbic mPFC also displayed evidence of chromatin remodeling. We found that exposure to repeated episodes of social defeat increased numbers of cells immunoreactive for histone H3 acetylation, but not for histone H3 phosphoacetylation, in the infralimbic mPFC. Collectively, these findings highlight the importance of the infralimbic mPFC in responding to social stress—a finding that provides insight into the possible neurobiological alterations associated with stress-induced psychiatric illness.

Role of catecholaminergic inputs to the medial prefrontal cortex in local and subcortical expression of Fos after psychological stress

A wide variety of stressors elicit Fos expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). No direct attempts, however, have been made to determine the role of the inputs that drive this response. We examined the effects of lesions of mPFC catecholamine terminals on local expression of Fos after exposure to air puff, a stimulus that in the rat acts as an acute psychological stressor. We also examined the effects of these lesions on Fos expression in a variety of subcortical neuronal populations implicated in the control of adrenocortical activation, one classic hallmark of the stress response. Lesions of the mPFC that were restricted to dopaminergic terminals significantly reduced numbers of Fos-immunoreactive (Fos-IR) cells seen in the mPFC after air puff, but had no significant effect on stress-induced Fos expression in the subcortical structures examined. Lesions of the mPFC that affected both dopaminergic and noradrenergic terminals also reduced numbers of Fos-IR cells observed in the mPFC after air puff. Additionally, these lesions resulted in a significant reduction in stress-induced Fos-IR in the ventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. These results demonstrate a role for catecholaminergic inputs to the mPFC, in the generation of both local and subcortical responses to psychological stress.

Thalamic paraventricular nucleus lesions facilitate central amygdala neuronal responses to acute psychological stress

The thalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVT) is activated by stress and projects to forebrain structures directly implicated in processing stress-related information. Accordingly, it seems likely the PVT plays an important role in modulating stress responses. We examined effects of excitotoxic PVT lesions on forebrain Fos expression patterns normally elicited by an acute psychological stressor. PVT lesions significantly increased stress-induced Fos in a key stress-processing region, the central amygdala.

Association between mitochondrial DNA 10398A>G polymorphism and the volume of amygdala

Mitochondrial calcium regulation plays a number of important roles in neurons. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) is highly polymorphic, and its interindividual variation is associated with various neuropsychiatric diseases and mental functions. An mtDNA polymorphism, 10398A>G, was reported to affect mitochondrial calcium regulation. Volume of hippocampus and amygdala is reportedly associated with various mental disorders and mental functions and is regarded as an endophenotype of mental disorders. The present study investigated the relationship between the mtDNA 10398A>G polymorphism and the volume of hippocampus and amygdala in 118 right-handed healthy subjects. The brain morphometry using magnetic resonance images employed both manual tracing volumetry in the native space and voxel-based morphometry (VBM) in the spatially normalized space. Amygdala volume was found to be significantly larger in healthy subjects with 10398A than in those with 10398G by manual tracing, which was confirmed by the VBM. Brain volumes in the other gray matter regions and all white matter regions showed no significant differences associated with the polymorphism. These provocative findings might provide a clue to the complex relationship between mtDNA, brain structure and mental disorders.

Association between serotonin transporter genotype, brain structure and adolescent onset major depressive disorder: a longitudinal prospective study

The extent to which brain structural abnormalities might serve as neurobiological endophenotypes that mediate the link between the variation in the promoter of the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR) and depression is currently unknown. We therefore investigated whether variation in hippocampus, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and anterior cingulate cortex volumes at age 12 years mediated a putative association between 5-HTTLPR genotype and first onset of major depressive disorder (MDD) between age 13–19 years, in a longitudinal study of 174 adolescents (48% males). Increasing copies of S-alleles were found to predict smaller left hippocampal volume, which in turn was associated with increased risk of experiencing a first onset of MDD. Increasing copies of S-alleles also predicted both smaller left and right medial OFC volumes, although neither left nor right medial OFC volumes were prospectively associated with a first episode of MDD during adolescence. The findings therefore suggest that structural abnormalities in the left hippocampus may be present prior to the onset of depression during adolescence and may be partly responsible for an indirect association between 5-HTTLPR genotype and depressive illness. 5-HTTLPR genotype may also impact upon other regions of the brain, such as the OFC, but structural differences in these regions in early adolescence may not necessarily alter the risk for onset of depression during later adolescence.

Análise morfológica neural e da densidade de espinhos dendríticos da amígdala medial de ratas durante o ciclo estral

A amígdala medial (AMe) é um núcleo superficial do complexo amigdalói-de, ocupando seu aspecto rostromedial. A AMe modula uma série de comportamen-tos, além de modular a memória e o aprendizado associado a estímulos olfativos e visuais. Em ratos, é uma estrutura sexualmente dimórfica e está dividida em quatro subnúcleos: ântero-dorsal (AMeAD), ântero-ventral (AMeAV), póstero-dorsal (AMePD) e póstero-ventral (AMePV). A AMe apresenta células com características morfológicas variadas e receptores para hormônios gonadais amplamente e heterogeneamente distribuídos entre todos os seus subnúcleos. O presente trabalho teve como obje-tivos caracterizar a morfologia dos neurônios dos subnúcleos AMeAD, AMeAV, AMePD e AMePV de ratas na fase de diestro e verificar a densidade de espinhos dendríticos de neurônios dos subnúcleos AMeAD, AMePD e AMePV de ratas nas fa-ses de diestro, pró-estro, estro e metaestro. Para tal, foram utilizadas ratas Wistar (N=24) que, após a identificação da fase do ciclo estral, foram anestesiadas e per-fundidas, tiveram seus encéfalos retirados e seccionados (cortes coronais de espes-sura de 100 e 200 µm), submetidos à técnica de Golgi. A seguir, os neurônios foram selecionados e desenhados com auxílio de câmara clara acoplada a um fotomicroscópio. Na avaliação da morfologia dos neurônios, observou-se que eles são do tipo multipolar, células estreladas e bitufted, sendo encontrados em todos os subnúcleos da AMe de ratas na fase de diestro além de células com corpos celulares arredondados, fusiformes, piriformes, ovais e com características piramidais. Para a quanti-ficação da densidade de espinhos dendríticos, foram desenhados os primeiros 40 µm de 8 ramos dendríticos de 6 fêmeas por fase do ciclo estral e por subregião da AMe. Os resultados da contagem dos espinhos dendríticos foram submetidos a ANOVA de uma via e ao teste de Newman-Keuls. Verificou-se que, em diestro, a densidade de espinhos nas regiões AMeAD, AMePD e AMePV, foi maior quando comparada às demais fases do ciclo estral. Além disso, em diestro, a AMePD apresentou a maior densidade quando comparada com as regiões AMeAD e AMePV. O estudo mostrou que os neurônios da AMe de ratas estudadas na fase de diestro apresentaram morfologia variada e a densidade de espinhos dendríticos va-riou na AMeAD, AMePD e AMePV durante o ciclo estral de ratas, especialmente na AMePD. Os resultados obtidos sugerem a plasticidade induzida por esteróides se-xuais na morfologia e na fisiologia da AMe de ratas.

Reconstrução do ligamento patelofemoral medial com enxerto livre do tendão do semitendinoso

A presente tese é o resultado final de um trabalho prospectivo evolutivo que buscou apresentar uma nova filosofia de tratamento na instabilidade femoropatelar, voltada para a reconstrução anatômica do ligamento patelofemoral medial. Essa abordagem terapêutica mostrou-se extremamente eficiente, com poucas complicações e com uma recuperação bastante rápida, o que permite um retorno às atividades profissionais ou discentes dos pacientes num espaço de tempo mais curto dos que nas técnicas convencionais. Em um primeiro trabalho foi realizada a reconstrução do ligamento patelofemoral medial (LPFM) com uso de enxerto de poliéster, e neste foi utilizado enxerto livre do tendão do semitendinoso. Como não houve diferença significativa entre os dois, concluiu-se que o princípio defendido de reconstrução do ligamento patelofemoral mediaal é mais importante que a escolha do enxerto a ser utilizado.