Structural health monitoring in Australia

Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) is defined as the use of on-structure sensing system to monitor the performance of the structure and evaluate its health state. Recent bridge failures, such as the collapses of the 1-35W Highway Bridge in USA, the collapse of the Can Tho Bridge in Vietnam and the Xijiang River Bridge in the Mainland China, all of which happened in the year 2007, have alerted the importance of structural health monitoring. This book presents a background of SHM technologies together with its latest development and successful applications. It is a book launched to celebrate the establishment of the Australian Network of Structural Health Monitoring (ANSHM). The network comprising leading SHM experts in Australia promotes and advances SHM research, application, education and development in Australia.

Structural health monitoring for long span bridges : Hong Kong experience and continuing onto Australia

Structural health monitoring has been accepted as a justified effort for long-span bridges, which are critical to a region's economic vitality. As the most heavily instrumented bridge project in the world, WASHMS - Wind And Structural Health Monitoring System has been developed and installed on the cable-supported bridges in Hong Kong (Wong and Ni 2009a). This chapter aims to share some of the experience gained through the operations and studies on the application of WASHMS. It is concluded that Structural Health Monitoring should be composed of two main components: Structural Performance Monitoring (SPM) and Structural Safety Evaluation (SSE). As an example to illustrate how the WASHMS could be used for structural performance monitoring, the layout of the sensory system installed on the Tsing Ma Bridge is briefly described. To demonstrate the two broad approaches of structural safety evaluation - Structural Health Assessment and Damage Detection, three examples in the application of SHM information are presented. These three examples can be considered as pioneer works for the research and development of the structural diagnosis and prognosis tools required by the structural health monitoring for monitoring and evaluation applications.

Biological monitoring of occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in prebake smelting

In 1984, the International Agency for Research on Cancer determined that working in the primary aluminium production process was associated with exposure to certain polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) that are probably carcinogenic to humans. Key sources of PAH exposure within the occupational environment of a prebake aluminium smelter are processes associated with use of coal-tar pitch. Despite the potential for exposure via inhalation, ingestion and dermal adsorption, to date occupational exposure limits exist only for airborne contaminants. This study, based at a prebake aluminium smelter in Queensland, Australia, compares exposures of workers who came in contact with PAHs from coal-tar pitch in the smelter’s anode plant (n = 69) and cell-reconstruction area (n = 28), and a non-production control group (n = 17). Literature relevant to PAH exposures in industry and methods of monitoring and assessing occupational hazards associated with these compounds are reviewed, and methods relevant to PAH exposure are discussed in the context of the study site. The study utilises air monitoring of PAHs to quantify exposure via the inhalation route and biological monitoring of 1-hydroxypyrene (1-OHP) in urine of workers to assess total body burden from all routes of entry. Exposures determined for similar exposure groups, sampled over three years, are compared with published occupational PAH exposure limits and/or guidelines. Results of paired personal air monitoring samples and samples collected for 1-OHP in urine monitoring do not correlate. Predictive ability of the benzene-soluble fraction (BSF) in personal air monitoring in relation to the 1-OHP levels in urine is poor (adjusted R2 < 1%) even after adjustment for potential confounders of smoking status and use of personal protective equipment. For static air BSF levels in the anode plant, the median was 0.023 mg/m3 (range 0.002–0.250), almost twice as high as in the cell-reconstruction area (median = 0.013 mg/m3, range 0.003–0.154). In contrast, median BSF personal exposure in the anode plant was 0.036 mg/m3 (range 0.003–0.563), significantly lower than the median measured in the reconstruction area (0.054 mg/m3, range 0.003–0.371) (p = 0.041). The observation that median 1-OHP levels in urine were significantly higher in the anode plant than in the reconstruction area (6.62 µmol/mol creatinine, range 0.09–33.44 and 0.17 µmol/mol creatinine, range 0.001–2.47, respectively) parallels the static air measurements of BSF rather than the personal air monitoring results (p < 0.001). Results of air measurements and biological monitoring show that tasks associated with paste mixing and anode forming in the forming area of the anode plant resulted in higher PAH exposure than tasks in the non-forming areas; median 1-OHP levels in urine from workers in the forming area (14.20 µmol/mol creatinine, range 2.02–33.44) were almost four times higher than those obtained from workers in the non-forming area (4.11 µmol/mol creatinine, range 0.09–26.99; p < 0.001). Results justify use of biological monitoring as an important adjunct to existing measures of PAH exposure in the aluminium industry. Although monitoring of 1-OHP in urine may not be an accurate measure of biological effect on an individual, it is a better indicator of total PAH exposure than BSF in air. In January 2005, interim study results prompted a plant management decision to modify control measures to reduce skin exposure. Comparison of 1-OHP in urine from workers pre- and post-modifications showed substantial downward trends. Exposure via the dermal route was identified as a contributor to overall dose. Reduction in 1-OHP urine concentrations achieved by reducing skin exposure demonstrate the importance of exposure via this alternative pathway. Finally, control measures are recommended to ameliorate risk associated with PAH exposure in the primary aluminium production process, and suggestions for future research include development of methods capable of more specifically monitoring carcinogenic constituents of PAH mixtures, such as benzo[a]pyrene.

Urban growth monitoring techniques for sustainable development

This paper discusses the role of advance techniques for monitoring urban growth and change for sustainable development of urban environment. It also presents results of a case study involving satellite data for land use/land cover classification of Lucknow city using IRS-1C multi-spectral features. Two classification algorithms have been used in the study. Experiments were conducted to see the level of improvement in digital classification of urban environment using Artificial Neural Network (ANN) technique.

An investigation of rail condition monitoring by Fibre Bragg Grating sensors

Condition monitoring on rails and train wheels is vitally important to the railway asset management and the rail-wheel interactions provide the crucial information of the health state of both rails and wheels. Continuous and remote monitoring is always a preference for operators. With a new generation of strain sensing devices in Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors, this study explores the possibility of continuous monitoring of the health state of the rails; and investigates the required signal processing techniques and their limitations.

Householder experiences with resource monitoring technology in sustainable homes

The use of feedback technologies, in the form of products such as Smart Meters, is increasingly seen as the means by which 'consumers' can be made aware of their patterns of resource consumption, and to then use this enhanced awareness to change their behaviour to reduce the environmental impacts of their consumption. These technologies tend to be single-resource focused (e.g. on electricity consumption only) and their functionality defined by persons other than end-users (e.g. electricity utilities). This paper presents initial findings of end-users' experiences with a multi-resource feedback technology, within the context of sustainable housing. It proposes that an understanding of user context, supply chain management and market diffusion issues are important design considerations that contribute to technology 'success'.

On-board mass monitoring of heavy vehicles : results of testing program

The Transport Certification Australia on-board mass feasibility project is testing various on-board mass devices in a range of heavy vehicles (HVs). Extensive field tests of on-board mass measurement systems for HVs have been conducted during 2008. These tests were of accuracy, robustness and tamper-evidence of heavy vehicle on-board mass telematics. All the systems tested showed accuracies within approximately +/- 500 kg of gross combination mass or approximately +/- 2% of the attendant weighbridge reading. Analysis of the dynamic data also showed encouraging results and has raised the possibility of use of such dynamic information in tamper evidence in two areas. This analysis was to determine if the use of averaged dynamic data could identify potential tampering or incorrect operating procedures as well as the possibility of dynamic measurements flagging a tamper event by the use of metrics including a tampering index (TIX). Technical and business options to detect tamper events will now be developed during implementation of regulatory OBM system application to Australian heavy vehicles (HVs).

Monitoring of the vertical movements of rail sleepers with the passage of trains

Due to an ever increasing demand for more frequent and higher volume of train service, the physical conditions of tracks in modem railways are deteriorating more quickly when compared to tracks built decades ago. There are incidences in both the UK and Hong Kong indicating there are needs for a more stringent checks on the rail conditions using suitable and effective non-invasive and nondestructive condition monitoring system.

A comprehensive condition monitoring of modern railway

The demand for high quality rail services in the twenty-first century has put an ever increasing demand on all rail operators. In order to meet the expectation of their patrons, the maintenance regime of railway systems has to be tightened up, the track conditions have to be well looked after, the rolling stock must be designed to withstand heavy duty. In short, in an ideal world where resources are unlimited, one needs to implement a very rigorous inspection regime in order to take care of the modem needs of a railway system [1]. If cost were not an issue, the maintenance engineers could inspect the train body by the most up-to-date techniques such as ultra-sound examination, x-ray inspection, magnetic particle inspection, etc. on a regular basis. However it is inconceivable to have such a perfect maintenance regime in any commercial railway. Likewise, it is impossible to have a perfect rolling stock which can weather all the heavy duties experienced in a modem railway. Hence it is essential that some condition monitoring schemes are devised to pick up potential defects which could manifest into safety hazards. This paper introduces an innovative condition monitoring system for track profile and, together with an instrumented car to carry out surveillance of the track, will provide a comprehensive railway condition monitoring system which is free from the usual difficulty of electromagnetic compatibility issues in a typical railway environment

Study of acoustic emission data analysis tools for structural health monitoring applications

Acoustic emission (AE) technique is one of the popular diagnostic techniques used for structural health monitoring of mechanical, aerospace and civil structures. But several challenges still exist in successful application of AE technique. This paper explores various tools for analysis of recorded AE data to address two primary challenges: discriminating spurious signals from genuine signals and devising ways to quantify damage levels.

Structural health monitoring of bridges : source localisation in acoustic emission technique

Managing the sustainability of urban infrastructure requires regular health monitoring of key infrastructure such as bridges. The process of structural health monitoring involves monitoring a structure over a period of time using appropriate sensors, extracting damage sensitive features from the measurements made by the sensors, and analysing these features to determine the current state of the structure. Various techniques are available for structural health monitoring of structures, and acoustic emission is one technique that is finding an increasing use in the monitoring of civil infrastructures such as bridges. Acoustic emission technique is based on the recording of stress waves generated by rapid release of energy inside a material, followed by analysis of recorded signals to locate and identify the source of emission and assess its severity. This chapter first provides a brief background of the acoustic emission technique and the process of source localization. Results from laboratory experiments conducted to explore several aspects of the source localization process are also presented. The findings from the study can be expected to enhance knowledge of the acoustic emission process, and to aid the development of effective bridge structure diagnostics systems.

Photo-cross-linked poly(D,L-lactide)-based networks. Structural characterization by HR-MAS NMR spectroscopy and hydrolytic degradation behavior

To date, biodegradable networks and particularly their kinetic chain lengths have been characterized by analysis of their degradation products in solution. We characterize the network itself by NMR analysis in the solvent-swollen state under magic angle spinning conditions. The networks were prepared by photoinitiated cross-linking of poly(dl-lactide)−dimethacrylate macromers (5 kg/mol) in the presence of an unreactive diluent. Using diffusion filtering and 2D correlation spectroscopy techniques, all network components are identified. By quantification of network-bound photoinitiator fragments, an average kinetic chain length of 9 ± 2 methacrylate units is determined. The PDLLA macromer solution was also used with a dye to prepare computer-designed structures by stereolithography. For these networks structures, the average kinetic chain length is 24 ± 4 methacrylate units. In all cases the calculated molecular weights of the polymethacrylate chains after degradation are maximally 8.8 kg/mol, which is far below the threshold for renal clearance. Upon incubation in phosphate buffered saline at 37 °C, the networks show a similar mass loss profile in time as linear high-molecular-weight PDLLA (HMW PDLLA). The mechanical properties are preserved longer for the PDLLA networks than for HMW PDLLA. The initial tensile strength of 47 ± 2 MPa does not decrease significantly for the first 15 weeks, while HMW PDLLA lost 85 ± 5% of its strength within 5 weeks. The physical properties, kinetic chain length, and degradation profile of these photo-cross-linked PDLLA networks make them most suited materials for orthopedic applications and use in (bone) tissue engineering.

Diesel engine condition monitoring and simulated diesel knock

This paper discusses diesel engine condition monitoring (CM) using acoustic emissions (AE) as well as some of the commonly encountered diesel engine problems. Also discussed are some of the underlying combustion related faults and the methods used in past studies to simulate diesel engine faults. The initial test involved an experimental simulation of two common combustion related diesel engine faults, namely diesel knock and misfire. These simulated faults represent the first step towards a comprehensive investigation and analysis into the characteristics of acoustic emission signals arising from combustion related diesel engine faults. Data corresponding to different engine running conditions was captured using in-cylinder pressure, vibration and acoustic emission transducers along with both crank angle encoder and top-dead centre (TDC) signals. Using these signals, it was possible to characterise the effect of different combustion conditions and hence, various diesel engine in-cylinder pressure profiles.

A regulatory on-board mass monitoring application for heavy vehicles in Australia

This paper reports on the development of specifications for an on-board mass monitoring (OBM) application for regulatory requirements in Australia. An earlier paper reported on feasibility study and pilot testing program prior to the specification development [1]. Learnings from the pilot were used to refine this testing process and a full scale testing program was conducted from July to October 2008. The results from the full scale test and evidentiary implications are presented in this report. The draft specification for an evidentiary on-board mass monitoring application is currently under development.

Dynamics of pattern writing and erasure in photorefractive lithium niobate for data storage applications

The present rate of technological advance continues to place significant demands on data storage devices. The sheer amount of digital data being generated each year along with consumer expectations, fuels these demands. At present, most digital data is stored magnetically, in the form of hard disk drives or on magnetic tape. The increase in areal density (AD) of magnetic hard disk drives over the past 50 years has been of the order of 100 million times, and current devices are storing data at ADs of the order of hundreds of gigabits per square inch. However, it has been known for some time that the progress in this form of data storage is approaching fundamental limits. The main limitation relates to the lower size limit that an individual bit can have for stable storage. Various techniques for overcoming these fundamental limits are currently the focus of considerable research effort. Most attempt to improve current data storage methods, or modify these slightly for higher density storage. Alternatively, three dimensional optical data storage is a promising field for the information storage needs of the future, offering very high density, high speed memory. There are two ways in which data may be recorded in a three dimensional optical medium; either bit-by-bit (similar in principle to an optical disc medium such as CD or DVD) or by using pages of bit data. Bit-by-bit techniques for three dimensional storage offer high density but are inherently slow due to the serial nature of data access. Page-based techniques, where a two-dimensional page of data bits is written in one write operation, can offer significantly higher data rates, due to their parallel nature. Holographic Data Storage (HDS) is one such page-oriented optical memory technique. This field of research has been active for several decades, but with few commercial products presently available. Another page-oriented optical memory technique involves recording pages of data as phase masks in a photorefractive medium. A photorefractive material is one by which the refractive index can be modified by light of the appropriate wavelength and intensity, and this property can be used to store information in these materials. In phase mask storage, two dimensional pages of data are recorded into a photorefractive crystal, as refractive index changes in the medium. A low-intensity readout beam propagating through the medium will have its intensity profile modified by these refractive index changes and a CCD camera can be used to monitor the readout beam, and thus read the stored data. The main aim of this research was to investigate data storage using phase masks in the photorefractive crystal, lithium niobate (LiNbO3). Firstly the experimental methods for storing the two dimensional pages of data (a set of vertical stripes of varying lengths) in the medium are presented. The laser beam used for writing, whose intensity profile is modified by an amplitudemask which contains a pattern of the information to be stored, illuminates the lithium niobate crystal and the photorefractive effect causes the patterns to be stored as refractive index changes in the medium. These patterns are read out non-destructively using a low intensity probe beam and a CCD camera. A common complication of information storage in photorefractive crystals is the issue of destructive readout. This is a problem particularly for holographic data storage, where the readout beam should be at the same wavelength as the beam used for writing. Since the charge carriers in the medium are still sensitive to the read light field, the readout beam erases the stored information. A method to avoid this is by using thermal fixing. Here the photorefractive medium is heated to temperatures above 150�C; this process forms an ionic grating in the medium. This ionic grating is insensitive to the readout beam and therefore the information is not erased during readout. A non-contact method for determining temperature change in a lithium niobate crystal is presented in this thesis. The temperature-dependent birefringent properties of the medium cause intensity oscillations to be observed for a beam propagating through the medium during a change in temperature. It is shown that each oscillation corresponds to a particular temperature change, and by counting the number of oscillations observed, the temperature change of the medium can be deduced. The presented technique for measuring temperature change could easily be applied to a situation where thermal fixing of data in a photorefractive medium is required. Furthermore, by using an expanded beam and monitoring the intensity oscillations over a wide region, it is shown that the temperature in various locations of the crystal can be monitored simultaneously. This technique could be used to deduce temperature gradients in the medium. It is shown that the three dimensional nature of the recording medium causes interesting degradation effects to occur when the patterns are written for a longer-than-optimal time. This degradation results in the splitting of the vertical stripes in the data pattern, and for long writing exposure times this process can result in the complete deterioration of the information in the medium. It is shown in that simply by using incoherent illumination, the original pattern can be recovered from the degraded state. The reason for the recovery is that the refractive index changes causing the degradation are of a smaller magnitude since they are induced by the write field components scattered from the written structures. During incoherent erasure, the lower magnitude refractive index changes are neutralised first, allowing the original pattern to be recovered. The degradation process is shown to be reversed during the recovery process, and a simple relationship is found relating the time at which particular features appear during degradation and recovery. A further outcome of this work is that the minimum stripe width of 30 ìm is required for accurate storage and recovery of the information in the medium, any size smaller than this results in incomplete recovery. The degradation and recovery process could be applied to an application in image scrambling or cryptography for optical information storage. A two dimensional numerical model based on the finite-difference beam propagation method (FD-BPM) is presented and used to gain insight into the pattern storage process. The model shows that the degradation of the patterns is due to the complicated path taken by the write beam as it propagates through the crystal, and in particular the scattering of this beam from the induced refractive index structures in the medium. The model indicates that the highest quality pattern storage would be achieved with a thin 0.5 mm medium; however this type of medium would also remove the degradation property of the patterns and the subsequent recovery process. To overcome the simplistic treatment of the refractive index change in the FD-BPM model, a fully three dimensional photorefractive model developed by Devaux is presented. This model shows significant insight into the pattern storage, particularly for the degradation and recovery process, and confirms the theory that the recovery of the degraded patterns is possible since the refractive index changes responsible for the degradation are of a smaller magnitude. Finally, detailed analysis of the pattern formation and degradation dynamics for periodic patterns of various periodicities is presented. It is shown that stripe widths in the write beam of greater than 150 ìm result in the formation of different types of refractive index changes, compared with the stripes of smaller widths. As a result, it is shown that the pattern storage method discussed in this thesis has an upper feature size limit of 150 ìm, for accurate and reliable pattern storage.