Autonomic stress responses elicited by watching a live broadcast soccer game: a pilot study

Aim: Increased rates of hospitalization due to cardiovascular events have been reported during phases of World Soccer Championships (WSC). The purpose of this pilot study was to explore acute psychological and physiological effects of watching a live broadcast soccer game during the WSC 2006. Methods: Seven male supporters (age: M=24; SD=2.7) of the Swiss National Soccer Team watched a game of their team in a controlled laboratory setting. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV), salivary cortisol, alpha-amylase (sAA), and testosterone concentrations, as well as several mood ratings were captured repeatedly before, during, and after the game. Results: Subjects reported feeling stressed, and HR and sAA activity showed an increase during the game. In contrast, HRV, cortisol and testosterone were unaffected. Conclusion: Watching a sports competition seems to specifically affect the sympathetic nervous system, which can be measured by sensitive electrocardiographic and salivary markers.

Fit between situational and dispositional goal orientation, and its effects on flow experience and affective well-being during sports.

Flow represents an optimal psychological state that is intrinsically rewarding. However, to date only a few studies have investigated the conditions for flow in sports. The present research aims to expand our understanding of the psychological factors that promote the flow experience in sports, focusing on the person-goal fit, or more precisely on the athletes’ situational and dispositional goal orientations. We hypothesize that a fit between an athlete’s situational and dispositional approach versus avoidance goal orientation should promote flow, whereas a non-fit will hinder flow during sports. In addition to the flow experience, we hypothesize that an athlete’s affective well-being is also affected by the person-goal fit. Here our assumptions are theoretically rooted in research on person-environment fit. An experimental study in an ecologically valid sport setting was conducted in order to draw causal conclusions and derive useful strategies for the practice of sports. Specifically, we investigated 67 male soccer players from a regional amateur league during a regular training session. They were randomly assigned to an approach or avoidance goal group and asked to take five penalty shots. Immediately afterwards, their flow experience and affective well-being during the penalty shootout were measured. As predicted, soccer players with a strong dispositional approach goal orientation experienced more flow and reported higher affective well-being when they were assigned to the approach goal. In contrast, soccer players with a strong dispositional avoidance goal orientation benefited from being assigned an avoidance goal in terms of their flow experience and affective well-being. The results are discussed critically with respect to their theoretical and practical implications.

Right ventricle best predicts the race performance in amateur ironman athletes

PURPOSE The ironman (IM) triathlon is a popular ultraendurance competition, consisting of 3.8 km of swimming, 180.2 km of cycling, and 42.2 km of running. The aim of this study was to investigate the predictors of IM race time, comparing echocardiographic findings, anthropometric measures, and training characteristics. METHODS Amateur IM athletes (ATHL) participating in the Zurich IM race in 2010 were included. Participants were examined the day before the race by a comprehensive echocardiographic examination. Moreover, anthropometric measurements were obtained the same day. During the 3 months before the race, each IM-ATHL maintained a detailed training diary. Recorded data were related to total IM race time. RESULTS Thirty-eight IM finishers (mean ± SD age = 38 ± 9 yr, 32 men [84%]) were evaluated. Total race time was 684 ± 89 min (mean ± SD). For right ventricular fractional area change (45% ± 7%, Spearman ρ = -0.33, P = 0.05), a weak correlation with race time was observed. Race performance exhibited stronger associations with percent body fat (15.2 ± 5.6%, ρ = 0.56, P = 0.001), speed in running training (11.7 ± 1.2 km · h(-1), ρ = -0.52, P = 0.002), and left ventricular myocardial mass index (98 ± 24 g · m(-2), ρ = -0.42, P = 0.009). The strongest association was found between race time and right ventricular end-diastolic area (22 ± 4 cm2, ρ = -0.64, P < 0.0001). In multivariate analysis, right ventricular end-diastolic area (β = -16.7, 95% confidence interval = -27.3 to -6.1, P = 0.003) and percent body fat (β = 6.8, 95% confidence interval = 1.1-12.6, P = 0.02) were independently predictive of IM race time. CONCLUSIONS In amateur IM-ATHL, RV end-diastolic area and percent body fat were independently related to race performance. RV end-diastolic area was the strongest predictor of race time. The role of the RV in endurance exercise may thus be more important than previously thought and needs to be further studied.

Death by patent foramen ovale in a soccer player

A 34-year-old male patient was referred for primary percutaneous coronary intervention for ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction with cardiogenic shock and was found to have embolic left coronary artery occlusion and subsegmental pulmonary artery emboli as a consequence of venous thrombosis to trauma to the thigh in the presence of a patent foramen ovale.

Coaches` subjective talent criteria in top-level soccer

Introduction: In professional soccer, talent selection relies on the subjective judgment of scouts and coaches. To date, little is known about coaches´ “eye for talent” (Christensen, 2009, p. 379) and the nature of the subjective criteria they use to identify those players with the greatest potential to achieve peak performance in adulthood (Williams & Reilly, 2000). Drawing on a constructivist approach (Kelly, 1991), this study explores coaches´ subjective talent criteria. It is assumed that coaches are able to verbalise and specify their talent criteria, and that these are related to their talent selection decisions based on instinct. Methods: Participants and generation of data. Five national youth soccer coaches (Mage = 55.6; SD = 5.03) were investigated at three appointments: (1) talent selection decision based on instinct, (2) semi-structured inductive interview to elicit each coaches´ talent criteria in detail, (3) communicative validation and evaluation of the players by each coach using the repertory grid technique (Fromm, 2004). Data Analysis: Interviews were transcribed and summarized with regard to each specified talent criterion. Each talent criterion was categorized using a bottom-up-approach (meaning categorization, Kvale, 1996). The repertory grid data was analysed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis. Results and Discussion: For each coach, six to nine talent criteria were elicited and specified. The subjective talent criteria include aspects of personality, cognitive perceptual skills, motor abilities, development, technique, social environment and physical constitution, which shows that the coaches use a multi-dimensional concept of talent. However, more than half of all criteria describe personality characteristics, in particular achievement motivation, volition and self-confidence. In contrast to Morris (2000), this result shows that coaches have a differentiated view of the personality characteristics required to achieve peak performance. As an indication of criterion validity, moderate to high correlations (.57 ≤ r ≤ .81) are found between the evaluations of the players according to the coaches´ talent criteria and their talent selection decision. The study shows that coaches are able to specify their subject talent criteria and that those criteria are strongly related to their instinctive selection decisions. References: Christensen, M. K. (2009). "An Eye for Talent": Talent Identification and the "Practical Sense" of Top-Level Soccer Coaches. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 365–382. Fromm, M. (2004). Introduction to the Repertory Grid Interview. Münster: Waxmann. Kelly, G. A. (1991). The Psychology of Personal Constructs: Volume One: Theory and personality. London: Routledge. Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. Thousand Oaks: Sage. Morris, T. (2000). Psychological characteristics and talent identification in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 715–726. Williams, A. M., & Reilly, T. (2000). Talent identification and development in soccer. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 657–667.

Left atrial remodeling, early repolarization pattern, and inflammatory cytokines in professional soccer players

OBJECTIVES: Although regular physical exercise clearly reduces cardiovascular morbidity risk, long-term endurance sports practice has been recognized as a risk factor for atrial fibrillation (AF). However, the mechanisms how endurance sports can lead to AF are not yet clear. The aim of our present study was to investigate the influence of long-term endurance training on vagal tone, atrial size, and inflammatory profile in professional elite soccer players. METHODS: A total of 25 professional major league soccer players (mean age 24+/-4 years) and 20 sedentary controls (mean age 26+/-3 years) were included in the study and consecutively examined. All subjects underwent a sports cardiology check-up with physical examination, electrocardiography, echocardiography, exercise testing on a bicycle ergometer, and laboratory analysis [standard laboratory and cytokine profile: interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, IL-8, IL-10]. RESULTS: Athletes were divided into two groups according to presence or absence of an early repolarization (ER) pattern, defined as a ST-segment elevation at the J-point (STE) >/=0.1mm in 2 leads. Athletes with an ER pattern showed significantly lower heart rate and an increased E/e' ratio compared to athletes without an ER pattern. STE significantly correlated with E/e' ratio as well as with left atrial (LA) volume. The pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha as well as the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 were significantly elevated in all soccer players. However, athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher IL-6 plasma levels than athletes without ER pattern. Furthermore, athletes with "high" level IL-6 had significantly larger LA volumes than players with "low" level IL-6. CONCLUSIONS: Athletes with an ER pattern had significantly higher E/e' ratios, reflecting higher atrial filling pressures, higher LA volume, and higher IL-6 plasma levels. All these factors may contribute to atrial remodeling over time and thus increase the risk of AF in long-term endurance sports.

"Amateur-Landwirtschaft"

Ben David

Comparación de variables fisiológicas y rendimiento alcanzado entre un ejercicio continuo vs. un ejercicio intermitente en futbolista amateur

El objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar si existen diferencias entre los promedios de frecuencia cardíaca intra, final, post esfuerzo, veloci-dad final de desplazamiento y tiempo de permanencia dentro de cada patrón de ejercicio realizado: Continuo, Yo-Yo Endurance Test nivel 1(ETN1) r = 0,84 vs. Intermitente, Yo-Yo Recovery Test nivel 1(RTN1) r = 0,90. Se seleccionaron 9 jugadores amateur. Se diseño un estudio intrasujetos, experimental. El primer patrón de ejercicio denominado ETN1 que nos infiere datos sobre el Consumo Máximo de Oxígeno valorado de forma indi-recta, y el RTN1 que nos informa aspectos relacionados con la resistencia a realizar esfuerzos intermitentes, muy utilizados en el fútbol. (BANGSBO, 1994) En ambos test se monitoreó la FC cada 5 segundos, al final y en los instantes de recuperación post-esfuerzo (3, 5 y 7 minuto). Se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significati-vas en la velocidad final de carrera (RTN1 15.9 Km/h. vs. ETN1 14.1 Km/h. p < 0.001), en el tiempo de per-manencia en las pruebas (RTN1 17,0 minutos vs. ETN1 13,0 minutos p < 0.01), FC (RTN1 190.5 latidos por minuto vs. ETN1 196.1 latidos por minuto p < 0.001) son significativamente diferentes, arrojando menores valores en el protocolo intermitente

Comparación de variables fisiológicas y rendimiento alcanzado entre un ejercicio continuo vs. un ejercicio intermitente en futbolista amateur

El objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar si existen diferencias entre los promedios de frecuencia cardíaca intra, final, post esfuerzo, veloci-dad final de desplazamiento y tiempo de permanencia dentro de cada patrón de ejercicio realizado: Continuo, Yo-Yo Endurance Test nivel 1(ETN1) r = 0,84 vs. Intermitente, Yo-Yo Recovery Test nivel 1(RTN1) r = 0,90. Se seleccionaron 9 jugadores amateur. Se diseño un estudio intrasujetos, experimental. El primer patrón de ejercicio denominado ETN1 que nos infiere datos sobre el Consumo Máximo de Oxígeno valorado de forma indi-recta, y el RTN1 que nos informa aspectos relacionados con la resistencia a realizar esfuerzos intermitentes, muy utilizados en el fútbol. (BANGSBO, 1994) En ambos test se monitoreó la FC cada 5 segundos, al final y en los instantes de recuperación post-esfuerzo (3, 5 y 7 minuto). Se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significati-vas en la velocidad final de carrera (RTN1 15.9 Km/h. vs. ETN1 14.1 Km/h. p < 0.001), en el tiempo de per-manencia en las pruebas (RTN1 17,0 minutos vs. ETN1 13,0 minutos p < 0.01), FC (RTN1 190.5 latidos por minuto vs. ETN1 196.1 latidos por minuto p < 0.001) son significativamente diferentes, arrojando menores valores en el protocolo intermitente

Comparación de variables fisiológicas y rendimiento alcanzado entre un ejercicio continuo vs. un ejercicio intermitente en futbolista amateur

El objetivo del presente trabajo es determinar si existen diferencias entre los promedios de frecuencia cardíaca intra, final, post esfuerzo, veloci-dad final de desplazamiento y tiempo de permanencia dentro de cada patrón de ejercicio realizado: Continuo, Yo-Yo Endurance Test nivel 1(ETN1) r = 0,84 vs. Intermitente, Yo-Yo Recovery Test nivel 1(RTN1) r = 0,90. Se seleccionaron 9 jugadores amateur. Se diseño un estudio intrasujetos, experimental. El primer patrón de ejercicio denominado ETN1 que nos infiere datos sobre el Consumo Máximo de Oxígeno valorado de forma indi-recta, y el RTN1 que nos informa aspectos relacionados con la resistencia a realizar esfuerzos intermitentes, muy utilizados en el fútbol. (BANGSBO, 1994) En ambos test se monitoreó la FC cada 5 segundos, al final y en los instantes de recuperación post-esfuerzo (3, 5 y 7 minuto). Se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significati-vas en la velocidad final de carrera (RTN1 15.9 Km/h. vs. ETN1 14.1 Km/h. p < 0.001), en el tiempo de per-manencia en las pruebas (RTN1 17,0 minutos vs. ETN1 13,0 minutos p < 0.01), FC (RTN1 190.5 latidos por minuto vs. ETN1 196.1 latidos por minuto p < 0.001) son significativamente diferentes, arrojando menores valores en el protocolo intermitente

Acute effects of endurance exercise on jumping and kicking performance in top-class young soccer players

The aim of this study was to examine the acute effects of endurance exercise on jumping and kicking performance in young soccer players. Twenty-one top-class young soccer players (16.1±0.2 years) performed a countermovement jump test and a maximal instep soccer kick test before and after running for 20 min on a treadmill at 80% of their individual maximum heart rate. Two force platforms were used to obtain the following parameters during the countermovement jump: jump height, maximum power, maximum power relative to body mass, maximum vertical ground reaction force, maximum vertical ground reaction force relative to body mass, and maximum vertical ground reaction force applied to each leg. Maximum vertical ground reaction force and maximum vertical ground reaction force relative to body mass applied to the support leg during the kicks were also calculated with a force platform. The kicking motion was recorded using a three-dimensional motion-capture system. Maximum velocity of the ball, maximum linear velocity of the toe, ankle, knee and hip, and linear velocity of the toe at ball contact during the kicks were calculated. Non-significant differences were found in the parameters measured during the countermovement jump and the maximal instep soccer kick test before and after running, suggesting that the jumping and kicking performances of top-class young soccer players were not significantly affected after 20 min treadmill running at 80% of their individual maximum heart rate.