Monitoramento in vivo por imagem por ressonância magnética de células C6 de glioma marcadas com nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de óxido de ferro

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the current study was to monitor the migration of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticle (SPION)-labeled C6 cells, which were used to induce glioblastoma tumor growth in an animal model, over time using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), with the goal of aiding in tumor prognosis and therapy. METHODS: Two groups of male Wistar rats were used for the tumor induction model. In the first group (n=3), the tumors were induced via the injection of SPION-labeled C6 cells. In the second group (n=3), the tumors were induced via the injection of unlabeled C6 cells. Prussian Blue staining was performed to analyze the SPION distribution within the C6 cells in vitro. Tumor-inducing C6 cells were injected into the right frontal cortex, and subsequent tumor monitoring and SPION detection were performed using T2- and T2*-weighted MRI at a 2T field strength. In addition, cancerous tissue was histologically analyzed after performing the MRI studies. RESULTS: The in vitro qualitative evaluation demonstrated adequate distribution and satisfactory cell labeling of the SPIONs. At 14 or 21 days after C6 injection, a SPION-induced T2- and T2*-weighted MRI signal reduction was observed within the lesion located in the left frontal lobe on parasagittal topography. Moreover, histological staining of the tumor tissue with Prussian Blue revealed a broad distribution of SPIONs within the C6 cells. CONCLUSION: MRI analyses exhibit potential for monitoring the tumor growth of C6 cells efficiently labeled with SPIONs.

Maternal immune activation increases the corticosterone response to acute stress without affecting the hypothalamic monoamine content and sleep patterns in male mice offspring

Background/Aims: Early life experiences are homeostatic determinants for adult organisms. We evaluated the impact of prenatal immune activation during late gestation on the neuroimmune-endocrine function of adult offspring and its interaction with acute stress. Methods: Pregnant Swiss mice received saline or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on gestational day 17. Adult male offspring were assigned to the control or restraint stress condition. We analyzed plasmatic corticosterone and catecholamine levels, the monoamine content in the hypothalamus, striatum and frontal cortex, and the sleep-wake cycle before and after acute restraint stress. Results and Conclusion: Offspring from LPS-treated dams had increased baseline norepinephrine levels and potentiated corticosterone secretion after the acute stressor, and no effect was observed on hypothalamic monoamine content or sleep behavior. The offspring of immune-activated dams exhibited impairments in stress-induced serotonergic and dopaminergic alterations in the striatum and frontal cortex. The data demonstrate a distinction between the plasmatic levels of corticosterone in response to acute stress and the hypothalamic monoamine content and sleep patterns. We provide new evidence regarding the influence of immune activation during late gestation on the neuroendocrine homeostasis of offspring.

Indagine sul coinvolgimento del sistema neuropeptidergico nocicettina/recettore NOP a carico della trasmissione nocicettiva

Oggetto di studio in questa tesi è stato il ruolo modulatorio svolto dal neuropeptide nocicettina/orfanina FQ a carico della trasmissione nocicettiva. A scopo introduttivo, sono state illustrate le conoscenze attuali sul sistema nocicettina-NOP; sono state descritte le funzioni, la struttura e la distribuzione del recettore NOP, le azioni farmacologiche finora note e la distribuzione della nocicettina stessa al livello del S.N.C. e in periferia. Lo studio è stato condotto principalmente con due approcci differenti A) E’ stata studiata la capacità della nocicettina esogena o di suoi analoghi agonisti e antagonisti, di modificare la trasmissione nocicettiva. B) Sono state studiate le variazioni a carico del sistema endogeno nocicettina/recettore NOP in seguito a trattamenti di tipo farmacologico. A) E’ stata indagata la capacità della nocicettina e degli analoghi sintetici [Arg14, Lys15]N/OFQ e UFP-101 di modificare la soglia nocicettiva nel ratto, rilevata con il test del tail-flick, a seguito di somministrazione diretta nello spazio subaracnoideo, in confronto con la nocicettina stessa. La somministrazione intratecale del neuropeptide nocicettina (10 nmol/ratto) ha determinato un innalzamento statisticamente significativo delle latenze di risposta al test del tail-flick. L’analogo [Arg14, Lys15]N/OFQ è stato somministrato alla dose di 1 nmole/ratto i.t. provocando un innalzamento massimale delle soglie di latenza per tutto il periodo di osservazione, mentre alla dose 0,2 nmoli/ratto i.t ha provocato un effetto antinocicettivo sottomassimale pur dimostrandosi significativo rispetto ai controlli (p < 0,05 vs controlli a tutti i tempi di rilevazione). Il composto antagonista UFP-101 è risultato capace di antagonizzare l’azione sulla soglia analgesica sia della nocicettina sia dell’analogo [Arg14, Lys15]N/OFQ nel suo dosaggio minore, mentre contro la dose di 1 nmole/ratto i.t ha prodotto solamente una riduzione di effetto. Anche la somministrazione intratecale di MAP-N/OFQ si è dimostrata in grado di modificare la soglia nocicettiva determinata mediante il test del tail-flick, nel ratto, in modo dose dipendente. differentementeuna seconda somministrazione di MAP-N/OFQ dopo 24 ore, si è dimostrata totalmente inefficace nel modificare la soglia nocicettiva nei ratti precedentemente trattati, pur permanendo la loro suscettibilità all’azione analgesica della morfina, mostrando quindi il rapido sviluppo di tolerance al potente peptide nocicettinergico somministrato per via i.t.. Inoltre l’antagonista UFP-101 oltre ad essere ingrado di antagonizzare l’effetto della MAP-N/OFQ, ha mostrato la capacità di ridurre la tolerance sviluppata nei confronti del dendrimero. La somministrazione di MAP-N/OFQ per via i.c.v. ha prodotto variazione della soglia nocicettiva, producendo un innalzamento del volore soglia, dato contrastante con la maggior parte dei dati riguardanti la nocicettina in letteratura. Ha invece replicato l’effetto di antagonismo funzionale nei confronti della morfina, la quale dopo somministrazione di MAP-N/OFQ è risultata essere incapace di modificare la soglia nocicettiva nel ratto. Tale effetto perdura dopo 24 ore, quando una somministrazione di morfina produce un effetto analgesico inversamente proporzionale alla dose ricevuta di MAP-N/OFQ 24 ore prima. E’stato indagato il possibile ruolo neuromodulatorio del neuropeptide nocicettina esogeno, nell’analgesia prodotta da un farmaco di natura non oppiacea. In tal senso si è proceduto ad indagare l’eventuale capacità della nocicettina esogena, somministrata per via intracerebroventricolare e del suo analogo [Arg14, Lys15]N/OFQ, di antagonizzare l’analgesia prodotta dal farmaco paracetamolo. La nocicettina ha evidenziato la capacità di antagonizzare il potere antinocicettivo del paracetamolo fino a bloccarne completamente l’effetto al dosaggio più elevato, mostrando quindi proprietà antagonista dose-dipendente. Inoltre l’UFP-101, che di per se non altera l’analgesia indotta da paracetamolo, è ingrado di antagonizzare l’effetto della nocicettina sul paracetamolo in maniera dose-dipendente. Medesimo è risultato il comportamento dell’analogo della nocicettina, la Arg-Lys nocicettina. B) Sono state indagate le relazioni tra il sistema nocicettina/NOP e le proprietà farmacologiche di un noto farmaco oppiaceo quale la buprenorfina, le cui peculiari caratteristiche farmacodinamiche sano state recentemente collegate alla sua capacità di agire come agonista diretto al recettore NOP. In tal senso si è proceduto ad osservare l’effetto della somministrazione di buprenorfina sull’ assetto recettoriale di NOP, inseguito ad un trattamento prolungato con somministrazione sottocutanea mediante minipompe osmotiche nel ratto, rilevando successivamente, tramite uno studio di binding, le variazioni della densità recettoriale di NOP in alcune aree di interesse per la trasmissione nocicettiva. Sia nell’ippocampo che nel talamo e nella frontal cortex, la somministrazione prolungata di buprenorfina ha causato una riduzione significativa della densità recettoriale di NOP. Come ultimo aspetto indagato, al fine di determinare la presenza del neuropeptide nel liquido cerebrospinale e le sue eventuali modificazioni a seguito di manipolazioni farmacologiche e non farmacologiche, è stata messa a punto una metodica di perfusione dello spazio subaracnoideo nel ratto, che consentisse di ottenere materiale biologico su cui compiere la ricerca e quantificazione della presenza di nocicettina mediante dosaggio radioimmunologico. La perfusione di CSF artificiale arricchito di ione potassio ad una concentrazione pari a 60 mM ha evidenziato la possibilità di stimolare la liberazione della nocicettina nel liquido cerebrospinale di ratto, suggerendo quindi una sua provenienza da elementi eccitabili. E’ stato quindi possibile osservare l’andamento dei livelli di peptide a seguito della stimolazione nocicettiva prodotta da due agenti irritanti con caratteristiche differenti, la carragenina e la formalina. La somministrazione sottocutanea di carragenina (100 µl al 3 %) nella regione subplantare di entrambe le zampe posteriori del ratto non ha determinato alterazioni significative dei livelli di neuropeptide. Invece, la somministrazione di formalina (50 µl al 5 %), dopo un iniziale periodo di 30 minuti, ha causato un incremento significativo della liberazione di N/OFQ a partire dal terzo intervallo di raccolta seguente la somministrazione della sostanza. Questo rispecchia l’andamento di risposta al formalin test ottenuto anche mediante test di natura differente dagli analgesimetrici (es. comportamentale, elettrofisiologico), in quest’ottica l’aumento di nocicettina può essere interpretato come un evento dovuto alla sensibilizzazione centrale all’effetto pronocicettivo.

Sonno e funzioni cognitive: ruolo della microstruttura del sonno NREM

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Cyclic Alternating Pattern (CAP) is a fluctuation of the arousal level during NREM sleep and consists of the alternation between two phases: phase A (divided into three subtypes A1, A2, and A3) and phase B. A1 is thought to be generated by the frontal cortex and is characterized by the presence of K complexes or delta bursts; additionally, CAP A1 seems to have a role in the involvement of sleep slow wave activity in cognitive processing. Our hypothesis was that an overall CAP rate would have a negative influence on cognitive performance due to excessive fluctuation of the arousal level during NREM sleep. However, we also predicted that CAP A1 would be positively correlated with cognitive functions, especially those related to frontal lobe functioning. For this reason, the objective of our study was to correlate objective sleep parameters with cognitive behavioral measures in normal healthy adults. METHODS: 8 subjects (4 males; 4 females; mean age 27.75 years, range 2334) were recruited for this study. Two nocturnal polysomnography (night 2 and 3 = N2 and N3) were carried out after a night of adaptation. A series of neuropsychological tests were performed by the subjects in the morning and afternoon of the second day (D2am; D2pm) and in the morning of the third day (D3am). Raw scores from the neuropsychological tests were used as dependent variables in the statistical analysis of the results. RESULTS: We computed a series of partial correlations between sleep microstructure parameters (CAP, A1, A2 and A3 rate) and a number of indices of cognitive functioning. CAP rate was positively correlated with visuospatial working memory (Corsi block test), Trial Making Test Part A (planning and motor sequencing) and the retention of words from the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT). Conversely, CAP was negatively correlated with visuospatial fluency (Ruff Figure Fluency Test). CAP A1 were correlated with many of the tests of neuropsychological functioning, such as verbal fluency (as measured by the COWAT), working memory (as measured by the Digit Span – Backward test), and both delay recall and retention of the words from the HVLT. The same parameters were found to be negatively correlated with CAP A2 subtypes. CAP 3 were negatively correlated with the Trial Making Test Parts A and B. DISCUSSION: To our knowledge this is the first study indicating a role of CAP A1 and A2 on behavioral cognitive performance of healthy adults. The results suggest that high rate of CAP A1 might be related to an improvement whereas high rate of CAP A2 to a decline of cognitive functions. Further studies need to be done to better determine the role of the overall CAP rate and CAP A3 on cognitive behavioral performances.

Specific PET-ligands for selected 5-HT and GABA A-receptor subtypes = PET-Liganden mit Spezifität für definierte 5-HT und GABA A-Rezeptor-Subtypen

Für diese Arbeit wurden sechs neue Benzodiazepinderivate, TC07, TC08, TC09, TC10, TC11 und TC12, hergestellt. Diese wurden mittels Radioligandenbindungsassay sowohl auf ihre Bindungseigenschaften für Membranen des Cerebellum, des Hippo-campus und des Cortex der Ratte hin untersucht, als auch für Membranen von HEK293 Zellen, die transient rekombinante GABAA Rezeptoren exprimierten. Zusätz-lich wurden kompetitive in situ Rezeptorautoradiographien an Rattenhirnschnitten mit den Liganden [3H]Ro15-4513 und [3H]R015-1788 durchgeführt. Zusammen ergaben sich aus diesen Experimenten deutliche Hinweise auf eine Selektivität der Verbindun-gen TC07, TC11 und TC12 für a5-Untereinheiten enthaltende GABAA Rezeptoren mit a5-Affinitäten im niedrigen nanomolaren Bereich. In vivo Bindungsexperimente in Ratten, mit [3H]Ro15-1788 als Tracer und TC07 als Kompetitor, ergaben, dass TC07 mehr [3H]Ro15-1788 im Vorderhirn als im Cerebellum verdrängt. Bezog man die regionale Verteilung der a5-Untereinheit des GABAA Rezep-tors im Rattenhirn mit ein – sehr wenige a5-Untereinheiten im Cerebellum, etwa 20 % der GABAA Rezeptor-Untereinheiten im Hippocampus – untermauerten diese Ergeb-nisse die Vermutung, TC07 könne a5-selektiv sein. Diese Daten bestätigten darü-berhinaus, dass TC07 die Blut-Hirn-Schranke passieren kann. Für elektrophysiologische Messungen mit TC07 und TC12 wurden die oben erwähnten transient transfizierten HEK293 Zellen verwendet, welche die GABAA Rezeptor Unte-reinheitenkombination a5b3g2 exprimierten. Das Dosis-Antwort Verhalten ergab keinen signifikanten Effekt für TC12. Die Daten von TC07 dagegen lassen auf einen schwach negativ modulatorischen Effekt schließen, was, zumindest theoretisch, die Möglichkeit eröffnet, TC07 auch als sogenannten cognitive enhancer einzusetzen. Der errechnete Ki-Wert lag in derselben Größenordnung wie der Ki-Wert, der anhand der Bindungsas-saydaten errechnet wurde. Insgesamt rechtfertigen die bisherigen Ergebnisse die radiochemische Markierung mit 18F von drei der sechs getesteten Verbindungen in der Reihenfolge TC07, TC12 und TC11. Des Weiteren wurde [18F]MHMZ, ein potentiell 5-HT2A selektiver Ligand und PET-Tracer einschließlich Vorläufer und Referenzverbindungen, mit hohen Ausbeuten syn-thetisiert (Herth, Debus et al. 2008). Autoradiographieexperimente mit Rattenhirn-schnitten zeigten hervorragende in situ Bindungseigenschaften der neuen Verbindung. Die Daten wiesen eine hohe Selektivität für 5-HT2A Rezeptoren in Verbindung mit einer niedrigen unspezifischen Bindung auf. [18F]MHMZ erfährt in vivo eine schnelle Metabo-lisierung, wobei ein polarer aktiver Metabolit entsteht, welcher vermutlich nicht die Blut-Hirn-Schranke passieren kann. Transversale, sagittale und coronale Kleintier-PET-Bilder des Rattenhirns zeigten eine hohe Anreicherung im frontalen Cortex und im Striatum, während im Cerebellum so gut wie keine Anreicherung festzustellen war. Diese Verteilung deckt sich mit der bekann-ten Verteilung der 5-HT2A Rezeptoren. Die in vivo Anreicherung scheint sich ebenfalls gut mit der Verteilung der in den Autoradiographieexperimenten gemessenen Bindung zu decken. Nach Berechnungen mit dem 4-Parameter Referenzgewebe Modell beträgt das Bindungspotential (BP) für den frontalen Cortex 1,45. Das Cortex zu Cerebellum Verhältnis wurde auf 2,7 nach 30 Minuten Messzeit bestimmt, was bemerkenswert nah an den von Lundkvist et al. für [11C]MDL 100907 publizierten Daten liegt. Abgesehen von der etwas niedrigeren Affinität waren die gemessenen in vitro, in situ und in vivo Daten denen von [3H]MDL 100907 und [11C]MDL 100907 sehr ähnlich, so dass wir ein [18F]Analogon in der Hand haben, das die bessere Selektivität von MDL 100907 verglichen mit Altanserin mit der längeren Halbwertszeit und den besse-ren Eigenschaften für die klinische Routine von 18F verglichen mit 11C verbindet. Die Ergebnisse von [18F]MHMZ rechtfertigenden weitere Experimente, um diesen Liganden für die klinische Routine am Menschen nutzbar zu machen.

Social learning and action understanding in human observers: contributions of sensori-motor constraints and prior information

The aim of this thesis was to investigate the respective contribution of prior information and sensorimotor constraints to action understanding, and to estimate their consequences on the evolution of human social learning. Even though a huge amount of literature is dedicated to the study of action understanding and its role in social learning, these issues are still largely debated. Here, I critically describe two main perspectives. The first perspective interprets faithful social learning as an outcome of a fine-grained representation of others’ actions and intentions that requires sophisticated socio-cognitive skills. In contrast, the second perspective highlights the role of simpler decision heuristics, the recruitment of which is determined by individual and ecological constraints. The present thesis aims to show, through four experimental works, that these two contributions are not mutually exclusive. A first study investigates the role of the inferior frontal cortex (IFC), the anterior intraparietal area (AIP) and the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) in the recognition of other people’s actions, using a transcranial magnetic stimulation adaptation paradigm (TMSA). The second work studies whether, and how, higher-order and lower-order prior information (acquired from the probabilistic sampling of past events vs. derived from an estimation of biomechanical constraints of observed actions) interacts during the prediction of other people’s intentions. Using a single-pulse TMS procedure, the third study investigates whether the interaction between these two classes of priors modulates the motor system activity. The fourth study tests the extent to which behavioral and ecological constraints influence the emergence of faithful social learning strategies at a population level. The collected data contribute to elucidate how higher-order and lower-order prior expectations interact during action prediction, and clarify the neural mechanisms underlying such interaction. Finally, these works provide/open promising perspectives for a better understanding of social learning, with possible extensions to animal models.

The future in action: neurophysiological and behavioral evidence of anticipatory motor simulation.

The motor system can no longer be considered as a mere passive executive system of motor commands generated elsewhere in the brain. On the contrary, it is deeply involved in perceptual and cognitive functions and acts as an “anticipation device”. The present thesis investigates the anticipatory motor mechanisms occurring in two particular instances: i) when processing sensory events occurring within the peripersonal space (PPS); and ii) when perceiving and predicting others’actions. The first study provides evidence that PPS representation in humans modulates neural activity within the motor system, while the second demonstrates that the motor mapping of sensory events occurring within the PPS critically relies on the activity of the premotor cortex. The third study provides direct evidence that the anticipatory motor simulation of others’ actions critically relies on the activity of the anterior node of the action observation network (AON), namely the inferior frontal cortex (IFC). The fourth study, sheds light on the pivotal role of the left IFC in predicting the future end state of observed right-hand actions. Finally, the fifth study examines how the ability to predict others’ actions could be influenced by a reduction of sensorimotor experience due to the traumatic or congenital loss of a limb. Overall, the present work provides new insights on: i) the anticipatory mechanisms of the basic reactivity of the motor system when processing sensory events occurring within the PPS, and the same anticipatory motor mechanisms when perceiving others’ implied actions; ii) the functional connectivity and plasticity of premotor-motor circuits both during the motor mapping of sensory events occurring within the PPS and when perceiving others’ actions; and iii) the anticipatory mechanisms related to others’ actions prediction.

Synthese und Evaluierung von [18 F]-Fluormethyltosylat als prosthetische Gruppe für die 18 F-Fluormethylierung von ZNS-Liganden für die PET

Die 11C-Methylierung von Radioliganden ist eine weit verbreitete Markierungsstrategie für PET-Liganden. Aber die kurze Halbwertszeit des Kohlenstoff-11 von 20,3 Minuten limitiert seinen Nutzen. Daher ist die 18F-Fluoralkylierung eine Möglichkeit, Fluor-18, das eine Halbwertszeit von 109,8 Minuten hat, in Target-Moleküle einzuführen. Während die 18F-Fluorethylierung eine weitverbreitete Markierungsstrategie ist, wird die 18F-Fluormethylierung bisher nur selten angewendet. Eine Ursache dafür ist die geringe Stabilität der 18F-Fluormethylgruppe in vivo. Durch Substitution des Wasserstoffs in der 18F-Fluormethylgruppe durch Deuterium kann deren Stabilität jedoch deutlich erhöht werden. Dadurch kann die 18F-Fluormethylierung eine wichtige Synthesestrategie für ZNS-Liganden sein, bei denen große strukturelle Varianz zum Einführen des Fluor-18 nicht möglich ist. rnAls prosthetische Gruppen zur 18F-Fluormethylierung wurden [18F]Fluormethyltosylat und [18F]Fluor-[d2]methyltosylat mit radiochemischen Ausbeuten bis zu 50% synthetisiert. Die Reaktionsbedingungen der 18F-Fluormethylierung mit d2-[18F]FMT und die Abtrennung der Radioliganden wurden an einer Modellverbindungen und den drei Zielstrukturen [18F]Fluor-[d2]methylharmol, [18F]Fluor-[d2]methyl-MH.MZ und [18F]Fluor-[d2]methylflumazenil optimiert. Es konnten radiochemischen Ausbeuten zwischen 25 und 60% erzielt werden. rnMit allen drei ZNS-Liganden wurden Kleintier-PET-Studien durchgeführt. Das d2-[18F]FMH zeigte eine schnelle und 1,5fach höhere Anreicherung im Hirn innerhalb der ersten fünf Minuten als die Vergleichssubstanz [18F]FEH. Für d2-[18F]FM-MH.MZ wurde in vivo eine höhere spezifische Anreicherung des Radiotracers im frontalen Cortex beobachtet als bei der 18F-fluorethylierten Vergleichssubstanz. Für das [18F]Fluor-[d2]methylflumazenil konnte keine Aufnahme ins Hirn festgestellt werden, sondern es kam zur vollständigen Zersetzung des Radioliganden durch Defluorierung. d2-[18F]FMH und d2-[18F]FM-MH.MZ waren bei physiologischen Bedingungen zu mehr als 90% stabil.rn

Neuronal Correlates of Perception, Imagery, and Memory for Familiar Tunes

We used fMRI to investigate the neuronal correlates of encoding and recognizing heard and imagined melodies. Ten participants were shown lyrics of familiar verbal tunes; they either heard the tune along with the lyrics, or they had to imagine it. In a subsequent surprise recognition test, they had to identify the titles of tunes that they had heard or imagined earlier. The functional data showed substantial overlap during melody perception and imagery, including secondary auditory areas. During imagery compared with perception, an extended network including pFC, SMA, intraparietal sulcus, and cerebellum showed increased activity, in line with the increased processing demands of imagery. Functional connectivity of anterior right temporal cortex with frontal areas was increased during imagery compared with perception, indicating that these areas form an imagery-related network. Activity in right superior temporal gyrus and pFC was correlated with the subjective rating of imagery vividness. Similar to the encoding phase, the recognition task recruited overlapping areas, including inferior frontal cortex associated with memory retrieval, as well as left middle temporal gyrus. The results present new evidence for the cortical network underlying goal-directed auditory imagery, with a prominent role of the right pFC both for the subjective impression of imagery vividness and for on-line mental monitoring of imagery-related activity in auditory areas.

Brain activation during anticipation of sound sequences

Music consists of sound sequences that require integration over time. As we become familiar with music, associations between notes, melodies, and entire symphonic movements become stronger and more complex. These associations can become so tight that, for example, hearing the end of one album track can elicit a robust image of the upcoming track while anticipating it in total silence. Here, we study this predictive “anticipatory imagery” at various stages throughout learning and investigate activity changes in corresponding neural structures using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Anticipatory imagery (in silence) for highly familiar naturalistic music was accompanied by pronounced activity in rostral prefrontal cortex (PFC) and premotor areas. Examining changes in the neural bases of anticipatory imagery during two stages of learning conditional associations between simple melodies, however, demonstrates the importance of fronto-striatal connections, consistent with a role of the basal ganglia in “training” frontal cortex (Pasupathy and Miller, 2005). Another striking change in neural resources during learning was a shift between caudal PFC earlier to rostral PFC later in learning. Our findings regarding musical anticipation and sound sequence learning are highly compatible with studies of motor sequence learning, suggesting common predictive mechanisms in both domains.

Outer skull landmark-based coordinates for measurement of cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure in rabbits

Despite the increased use of intracranial neuromonitoring during experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH), coordinates for probe placement in rabbits are lacking. This study evaluates the safety and reliability of using outer skull landmarks to identify locations for placement of cerebral blood flow (CBF) and intraparenchymal intracranial pressure (ICP) probes. Experimental SAH was performed in 17 rabbits using an extracranial-intracranial shunt model. ICP probes were placed in the frontal lobe and compared to measurements recorded from the olfactory bulb. CBF probes were placed in various locations in the frontal cortex anterior to the coronary suture. Insertion depth, relation to the ventricular system, and ideal placement location were determined by post-mortem examination. ICP recordings at the time of SAH from the frontal lobe did not differ significantly from those obtained from the right olfactory bulb. Ideal coordinates for intraparenchymal CBF probes in the left and right frontal lobe were found to be located 4.6±0.9 and 4.5±1.2 anterior to the bregma, 4.7±0.7mm and 4.7±0.5mm parasagittal, and at depths of 4±0.5mm and 3.9±0.5mm, respectively. The results demonstrate that the presented coordinates based on skull landmarks allow reliable placement of intraparenchymal ICP and CBF probes in rabbit brains without the use of a stereotactic frame.

Neural correlates of sleepiness induced by catecholamine depletion

Although extensive indirect evidence exists to suggest that the central dopaminergic system plays a significant role in the modulation of arousal, the functional effect of the dopaminergic influence on the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle remains unclear. Thirteen healthy volunteers and 15 unmedicated subjects with a history of major depressive disorder underwent catecholamine depletion (CD) using oral alpha-methyl-para-tyrosine in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, crossover study. The main outcome measures in both sessions were sleepiness (Stanford-Sleepiness-Scale), cerebral glucose metabolism (positron emission tomography), and serum prolactin concentration. CD consistently induced clinically relevant sleepiness in both groups. The CD-induced prolactin increase significantly correlated with CD-induced sleepiness but not with CD-induced mood and anxiety symptoms. CD-induced sleepiness correlated with CD-induced increases in metabolism in the medial and orbital frontal cortex, bilateral superior temporal cortex, left insula, cingulate motor area and in the vicinity of the periaqueductal gray. This study suggests that the association between dopamine depletion and sleepiness is independent of the brain reward system and the risk for depression. The visceromotor system, the cingulate motor area, the periaqueductal gray and the caudal hypothalamus may mediate the impact of the dopaminergic system on regulation of wakefulness and sleep.

Comparison of brain PrPd distribution in ovine BSE and scrapie

Scrapie and bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) are both prion diseases affecting ruminants, and these diseases do not share the same public health concerns. Surveillance of the BSE agent in small ruminants has been a great challenge, and the recent identification of diverse prion diseases in ruminants has led to the development of new methods for strain typing. In our study, using immunohistochemistry (IHC), we assessed the distribution of PrP(d) in the brains of 2 experimentally BSE-infected sheep with the ARQ/ARQ genotype. Distribution of PrP(d) in the brain, from the spinal cord to the frontal cortex, was remarkably similar in the 2 sheep despite different inoculation routes and incubation periods. Comparatively, overall PrP(d) brain distribution, evaluated by IHC, in 19 scrapie cases with the ARQ/ARQ, ARQ/VRQ, and VRQ/VRQ genotypes, in some cases showed similarities to the experimentally BSE-infected sheep. There was no exclusive neuroanatomical site with a characteristic and specific PrP(d) type of accumulation induced by the BSE agent. However, a detailed analysis of the topography, types, and intensity of PrP(d) deposits in the frontal cortex, striatum, piriform cortex, hippocampus, mesencephalon, and cerebellum allowed the BSE-affected sheep group to be distinguished from the 19 scrapie cases analyzed in our study. These results strengthen and emphasize the potential interest of PrP(d) brain mapping to help in identifying prion strains in small ruminants.

Amino acids in cerebrospinal and brain interstitial fluid in experimental pneumococcal meningitis

Excitatory amino acids are increasingly implicated in the pathogenesis of neuronal injury induced by a variety of CNS insults, such as ischemia, trauma, hypoglycemia, and epilepsy. Little is known about the role of amino acids in causing CNS injury in bacterial meningitis. Several amino acids were measured in cerebrospinal fluid and in microdialysis samples from the interstitial fluid of the frontal cortex in a rabbit model of pneumococcal meningitis. Cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of glutamate, aspartate, glycine, taurine, and alanine increased significantly in infected animals. Among the amino acids with known excitatory or inhibitory function, interstitial fluid concentrations of glutamate were significantly elevated (by 470%). Alanine, a marker for anaerobic glycolysis, also increased in the cortex of infected rabbits. The elevated glutamate concentrations in the brain extracellular space suggest that excitotoxic neuronal injury may play a role in bacterial meningitis.

Lactate and glucose concentrations in brain interstitial fluid, cerebrospinal fluid, and serum during experimental pneumococcal meningitis

Metabolic abnormalities during bacterial meningitis include hypoglycorrhachia and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) lactate accumulation. The mechanisms by which these alterations occur within the central nervous system (CNS) are still incompletely delineated. To determine the evolution of these changes and establish the locus of abnormal metabolism during meningitis, glucose and lactate concentrations in brain interstitial fluid, CSF, and serum were measured simultaneously and sequentially during experimental pneumococcal meningitis in rabbits. Interstitial fluid samples were obtained from the frontal cortex and hippocampus by using in situ brain microdialysis, and serum and CSF were directly sampled. There was an increase of CSF lactate concentration, accompanied by increased local production of lactate in the brain, and a decrease of CSF-to-serum glucose ratio that was paralleled by a decrease in cortical glucose concentration. Brain microdialysate lactate concentration was not affected by either systemic lactic acidosis or artificially elevated CSF lactate concentration. These data support the hypothesis that the brain is a locus for anaerobic glycolysis during meningitis, resulting in increased lactate production and perhaps contributing to decreased tissue glucose concentration.