Modélisation de l'irradiance solaire spectrale dans le proche et moyen ultraviolet

Nous présentons un modèle pour l’irradiance solaire spectrale entre 200 et 400 nm. Celui-ci est une extension d’un modèle d’irradiance solaire totale basé sur la simulation de la fragmentation et l’érosion des taches qui utilise, en entrée, les positions et aires des taches observées pour chaque pas de temps d’une journée. L’émergence des taches sur la face du Soleil opposée à la Terre est simulée par une injection stochastique. Le modèle simule ensuite leur désintégration, qui produit des taches plus petites et des facules. Par la suite, l’irradiance est calculée en sommant la contribution des taches, des facules et du Soleil inactif. Les paramètres libres du modèle sont ajustés en comparant les séquences temporelles produites avec les données provenant de divers satellites s’étalant sur trois cycles d’activité. Le modèle d’irradiance spectrale, quant à lui, a été obtenu en modifiant le calcul de la contribution des taches et des facules, ainsi que celle du Soleil inactif, afin de tenir compte de leur dépendance spectrale. Le flux de la photosphère inactive est interpolé sur un spectre synthétique non magnétisé, alors que le contraste des taches est obtenu en calculant le rapport du flux provenant d’un spectre synthétique représentatif des taches et de celui provenant du spectre représentatif du Soleil inactif. Le contraste des facules est quand à lui calculé avec une procédure simple d’inversion de corps noir. Cette dernière nécessite l’utilisation d’un profil de température des facules obtenu à l’aide de modèles d’atmosphère. Les données produites avec le modèle d’irradiance spectrale sont comparées aux observations de SOLSTICE sur UARS. L’accord étant peu satisfaisant, particulièrement concernant le niveau d’irradiance minimal ainsi que l’amplitude des variations, des corrections sont appliquées sur le flux du Soleil inactif, sur le profil de température des facules, ainsi qu’à la dépendance centre-bord du contraste des facules. Enfin, un profil de température des facules est reconstruit empiriquement en maximisant l’accord avec les observations grâce à un algorithme génétique. Il est utilisé afin de reconstruire les séquences temporelles d’irradiance jusqu’en 1874 à des longueurs d’ondes d’intérêt pour la chimie et la dynamique stratosphérique.

Modélisation de l'irradiance solaire totale et spectrale et applications à la chimie stratosphérique terrestre

Cette thèse présente des reconstructions de l'irradiance totale et spectrale durant les 400 dernières années à l'aide des modèles pour l'irradiance totale et l'irradiance spectrale dans l'ultraviolet développés à l'Université de Montréal. Tous deux sont basés sur la simulation de l'émergence, de la fragmentation et de l'érosion des taches solaires, qui permet d'obtenir une distribution de l'aire des taches sombres et des facules brillantes en fonction du temps. Ces deux composantes sont principalement responsables de la variation de l'irradiance sur l'échelle de temps de la décennie, qui peut être calculée en sommant leur émissivité à celle de la photosphère inactive. La version améliorée du modèle d'irradiance solaire spectrale MOCASSIM inclut une extension de son domaine spectral entre 150 et 400 nm ainsi que de son domaine temporel, débutant originalement en 1874 et couvrant maintenant la période débutant en 1610 jusqu'au présent. Cela permet de reconstruire le spectre ultraviolet durant le minimum de Maunder et de le comparer à celui du minimum de 2009. Les conclusions tirées de cette étude spécifient que l'émissivité dans l'ultraviolet était plus élevée en 2009 que durant le minimum de Maunder, que le niveau de base de la photosphère non magnétisée contribuait pour environ les deux tiers de cette différence et que les structures magnétiques restantes étaient responsables pour le tiers restant. Le modèle d'irradiance totale a vu son domaine temporel étendu sur la même période et une composante représentant le réseau magnétique de façon réaliste y a été ajoutée. Il a été démontré que les observations des 30 dernières années ne sont bien reproduites qu'en incluant la composante du Soleil non magnétisé variable à long terme. Le processus d'optimisation des paramètres libres du modèle a été effectué en minimisant le carré de la somme de l'écart journalier entre les résultats des calculs et les données observées. Les trois composites disponibles, soit celui du PMOD (Physikalisch Meteorologisches Observatorium Davos), d'ACRIM (ACtive Radiometer Irradiance Monitor) et du IRMB (Institut Royal Météorologique de Belgique), ne sont pas en accord entre eux, en particulier au niveau des minima du cycle d'activité, et le modèle permet seulement de reproduire celui du PMOD avec exactitude lorsque la composante variable à long terme est proportionnelle au flux radio à 10.7 cm. Toutefois, en utilisant des polynômes de Lagrange pour représenter la variation du Soleil inactif, l'accord est amélioré pour les trois composites durant les minima, bien que les relations entre le niveau minimal de l'irradiance et la longueur du cycle précédent varient d'un cas à l'autre. Les résultats obtenus avec le modèle d'irradiance spectrale ont été utilisés dans une étude d'intercomparaison de la réponse de la photochimie stratosphérique à différentes représentations du spectre solaire. Les simulations en mode transitoire d'une durée de 10 jours ont été effectuées avec un spectre solaire constant correspondant soit à une période d'activité minimale ou à une période d'activité maximale. Ceci a permis d'évaluer la réponse de la concentration d'ozone à la variabilité solaire au cours d'un cycle et la différence entre deux minima. En plus de ceux de MOCASSIM, les spectres produits par deux modèles ont été utilisés (NRLSSI et MGNM) ainsi que les données de SIM et SOLSTICE/SORCE. La variabilité spectrale de chacun a été extraite et multipliée à un spectre de base représentant le minimum d'activité afin de simuler le spectre au maximum d'activité. Cela a été effectué dans le but d'isoler l'effet de la variabilité seule et d'exclure celui de la valeur absolue du spectre. La variabilité spectrale d'amplitude relativement élevée des observations de SORCE n'a pas provoqué l'inversion de la réponse de l'ozone à hautes altitudes obtenues par d'autres études, ce qui peut être expliqué par la nature même du modèle utilisé ainsi que par sa limite supérieure en altitude. Finalement, la réponse de l'ozone semble être à peu près proportionnelle à la variabilité de l'intégrale du flux pour lambda<241 nm. La comparaison des concentrations d'ozone obtenues avec les spectres originaux au minimum d'activité démontre que leur différence est du même ordre de grandeur que la variabilité entre le minimum et le maximum d'un cycle typique. Le problème du choix de la reconstruction de l'irradiance à utiliser pour les simulations climatiques dans le passé demeure non résolu.

Solar induced climate effects

Solar electromagnetic radiation powers Earth’s climate system and, consequently, it is often naively assumed that changes in this solar output must be responsible for changes in Earth’s climate. However, the Sun is close to a blackbody radiator and so emits according to its surface temperature and the huge thermal time constant of the outer part of the Sun limits the variability in surface temperature and hence output. As a result, on all timescales of interest, changes in total power output are limited to small changes in effective surface temperature (associated with magnetic fields) and potential, although as yet undetected, solar radius variations. Larger variations are seen in the UV part of the spectrum which is emitted from the lower solar atmosphere (the chromosphere) and which influences Earth’s stratosphere. There is interest in“top-down” mechanisms whereby solar UV irradiance modulates stratospheric temperatures and winds which, in turn, may influence the underlying troposphere where Earth’s climate and weather reside. This contrasts with “bottom-up” effects in which the small total solar irradiance (dominated by the visible and near-IR) variations cause surface temperature changes which drive atmospheric circulations. In addition to these electromagnetic outputs, the Sun modulates energetic particle fluxes incident on the Earth. Solar Energetic Particles (SEP) are emitted by solar flares and from the shock fronts ahead of supersonic (and super-Alfvenic) ejections of material from the solar atmosphere. These SEPs enhance the destruction of polar stratospheric ozone which could be an additional form of top-down climate forcing. Even more energetic are Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCRs). These particles are not generated by the Sun, rather they originate at the shock fronts emanating from violent galactic events such as supernovae explosions; however, the expansion of the solar magnetic field into interplanetary space means that the Sun modulates the number of GCRs reaching Earth. These play a key role in enabling Earth’s global electric (thunderstorm) circuit and it has been proposed that they also modulate the formation of clouds. Both electromagnetic and corpuscular solar effects are known to vary over the solar magnetic cycle which is typically between 10 and 14 yrs in length (with an average close to 11 yrs). The solar magnetic field polarity at any one phase of one of these activity cycles is opposite to that at the same phase of the next cycle and this influences some phenomena, for example GCRs, which therefore show a 22 yr (“Hale”) cycle on average. Other phenomena, such as irradiance modulation, do not depend on the polarity of the magnetic field and so show only the basic 11-yr activity cycle. However, any effects on climate are much more significant for solar drifts over centennial timescales. This chapter discusses and evaluates potential effects on Earth’s climate system of variations in these solar inputs. Because of the great variety of proposed mechanisms, the wide range of timescales studied (from days to millennia) and the many debates (often triggered by the application of inadequate statistical methods), the literature on this subject is vast, complex, divergent and rapidly changing: consequently the number of references cited in this review is very large (yet still only a small fraction of the total).

Solar influences on climate

Understanding the influence of solar variability on the Earth’s climate requires knowledge of solar variability, solar-terrestrial interactions and the mechanisms determining the response of the Earth’s climate system. We provide a summary of our current understanding in each of these three areas. Observations and mechanisms for the Sun's variability are described, including solar irradiance variations on both decadal and centennial timescales and their relation to galactic cosmic rays. Corresponding observations of variations of the Earth’s climate on associated timescales are described, including variations in ozone, temperatures, winds, clouds, precipitation and regional modes of variability such as the monsoons and the North Atlantic Oscillation. A discussion of the available solar and climate proxies is provided. Mechanisms proposed to explain these climate observations are described, including the effects of variations in solar irradiance and of charged particles. Finally, the contribution of solar variations to recent observations of global climate change are discussed.

Recent changes in solar outputs and the global mean surface temperature. III. Analysis of contributions to global mean air surface temperature rise

A multivariate fit to the variation in global mean surface air temperature anomaly over the past half century is presented. The fit procedure allows for the effect of response time on the waveform, amplitude and lag of each radiative forcing input, and each is allowed to have its own time constant. It is shown that the contribution of solar variability to the temperature trend since 1987 is small and downward; the best estimate is -1.3% and the 2sigma confidence level sets the uncertainty range of -0.7 to -1.9%. The result is the same if one quantifies the solar variation using galactic cosmic ray fluxes (for which the analysis can be extended back to 1953) or the most accurate total solar irradiance data composite. The rise in the global mean air surface temperatures is predominantly associated with a linear increase that represents the combined effects of changes in anthropogenic well-mixed greenhouse gases and aerosols, although, in recent decades, there is also a considerable contribution by a relative lack of major volcanic eruptions. The best estimate is that the anthropogenic factors contribute 75% of the rise since 1987, with an uncertainty range (set by the 2sigma confidence level using an AR(1) noise model) of 49–160%; thus, the uncertainty is large, but we can state that at least half of the temperature trend comes from the linear term and that this term could explain the entire rise. The results are consistent with the intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC) estimates of the changes in radiative forcing (given for 1961–1995) and are here combined with those estimates to find the response times, equilibrium climate sensitivities and pertinent heat capacities (i.e. the depth into the oceans to which a given radiative forcing variation penetrates) of the quasi-periodic (decadal-scale) input forcing variations. As shown by previous studies, the decadal-scale variations do not penetrate as deeply into the oceans as the longer term drifts and have shorter response times. Hence, conclusions about the response to century-scale forcing changes (and hence the associated equilibrium climate sensitivity and the temperature rise commitment) cannot be made from studies of the response to shorter period forcing changes.

An urban solar flux island: measurements from London

Solar irradiance measurements from a new high density urban network in London are presented. Annual averages demonstrate that central London receives 30 ± 10 Wm-2 less solar irradiance than outer London at midday, equivalent to 9 ± 3% less than the London average. Particulate matter and AERONET measurements combined with radiative transfer modeling suggest that the direct aerosol radiative effect could explain 33 to 40% of the inner London deficit and a further 27 to 50% could be explained by increased cloud optical depth due to the aerosol indirect effect. These results have implications for solar power generation and urban energy balance models. A new technique using ‘Langley flux gradients’ to infer aerosol column concentrations over clear periods of three hours has been developed and applied to three case studies. Comparisons with particulate matter measurements across London have been performed and demonstrate that the solar irradiance measurement network is able to detect aerosol distribution across London and transport of a pollution plume out of London.

What influence will future solar activity changes over the 21st century have on projected global near-surface temperature changes?

During the 20th century, solar activity increased in magnitude to a so-called grand maximum. It is probable that this high level of solar activity is at or near its end. It is of great interest whether any future reduction in solar activity could have a significant impact on climate that could partially offset the projected anthropogenic warming. Observations and reconstructions of solar activity over the last 9000 years are used as a constraint on possible future variations to produce probability distributions of total solar irradiance over the next 100 years. Using this information, with a simple climate model, we present results of the potential implications for future projections of climate on decadal to multidecadal timescales. Using one of the most recent reconstructions of historic total solar irradiance, the likely reduction in the warming by 2100 is found to be between 0.06 and 0.1 K, a very small fraction of the projected anthropogenic warming. However, if past total solar irradiance variations are larger and climate models substantially underestimate the response to solar variations, then there is a potential for a reduction in solar activity to mitigate a small proportion of the future warming, a scenario we cannot totally rule out. While the Sun is not expected to provide substantial delays in the time to reach critical temperature thresholds, any small delays it might provide are likely to be greater for lower anthropogenic emissions scenarios than for higher-emissions scenarios.

A high-resolution near-infrared extraterrestrial solar spectrum derived from ground-based Fourier transform spectrometer measurements

A detailed spectrally-resolved extraterrestrial solar spectrum (ESS) is important for line-by-line radiative transfer modeling in the near-infrared (near-IR). Very few observationally-based high-resolution ESS are available in this spectral region. Consequently the theoretically-calculated ESS by Kurucz has been widely adopted. We present the CAVIAR (Continuum Absorption at Visible and Infrared Wavelengths and its Atmospheric Relevance) ESS which is derived using the Langley technique applied to calibrated observations using a ground-based high-resolution Fourier transform spectrometer (FTS) in atmospheric windows from 2000–10000 cm-1 (1–5 μm). There is good agreement between the strengths and positions of solar lines between the CAVIAR and the satellite-based ACE-FTS (Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment-FTS) ESS, in the spectral region where they overlap, and good agreement with other ground-based FTS measurements in two near-IR windows. However there are significant differences in the structure between the CAVIAR ESS and spectra from semi-empirical models. In addition, we found a difference of up to 8 % in the absolute (and hence the wavelength-integrated) irradiance between the CAVIAR ESS and that of Thuillier et al., which was based on measurements from the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science satellite and other sources. In many spectral regions, this difference is significant, as the coverage factor k = 2 (or 95 % confidence limit) uncertainties in the two sets of observations do not overlap. Since the total solar irradiance is relatively well constrained, if the CAVIAR ESS is correct, then this would indicate an integrated “loss” of solar irradiance of about 30 W m-2 in the near-IR that would have to be compensated by an increase at other wavelengths.

Evidence for solar wind modulation of lightning

The response of lightning rates over Europe to arrival of high speed solar wind streams at Earth is investigated using a superposed epoch analysis. Fast solar wind stream arrival is determined from modulation of the solar wind V y component, measured by the Advanced Composition Explorer spacecraft. Lightning rate changes around these event times are determined from the very low frequency arrival time difference (ATD) system of the UK Met Office. Arrival of high speed streams at Earth is found to be preceded by a decrease in total solar irradiance and an increase in sunspot number and Mg II emissions. These are consistent with the high speed stream's source being co-located with an active region appearing on the Eastern solar limb and rotating at the 27 d period of the Sun. Arrival of the high speed stream at Earth also coincides with a small (~1%) but rapid decrease in galactic cosmic ray flux, a moderate (~6%) increase in lower energy solar energetic protons (SEPs), and a substantial, statistically significant increase in lightning rates. These changes persist for around 40 d in all three quantities. The lightning rate increase is corroborated by an increase in the total number of thunder days observed by UK Met stations, again persisting for around 40 d after the arrival of a high speed solar wind stream. This result appears to contradict earlier studies that found an anti-correlation between sunspot number and thunder days over solar cycle timescales. The increase in lightning rates and thunder days that we observe coincides with an increased flux of SEPs which, while not being detected at ground level, nevertheless penetrate the atmosphere to tropospheric altitudes. This effect could be further amplified by an increase in mean lightning stroke intensity that brings more strokes above the detection threshold of the ATD system. In order to remove any potential seasonal bias the analysis was repeated for daily solar wind triggers occurring during the summer months (June to August). Though this reduced the number of solar wind triggers to 32, the response in both lightning and thunder day data remained statistically significant. This modulation of lightning by regular and predictable solar wind events may be beneficial to medium range forecasting of hazardous weather.

The effect of chosen extraterrestrial solar spectrum on clear-sky atmospheric absorption and heating rates in the near infrared

The extraterrestrial solar spectrum (ESS) is an important component in near infrared (near-IR) radiative transfer calculations. However, the impact of a particular choice of the ESS in these regions has been given very little attention. A line-by-line (LBL) transfer model has been used to calculate the absorbed solar irradiance and solar heating rates in the near-IR from 2000-10000 cm−1(1-5 μm) using different ESS. For overhead sun conditions in a mid-latitude summer atmosphere, the absorbed irradiances could differ by up to about 11 Wm−2 (8.2%) while the tropospheric and stratospheric heating rates could differ by up to about 0.13 K day−1 (8.1%) and 0.19 K day−1 (7.6%). The spectral shape of the ESS also has a small but non-negligible impact on these factors in the near-IR.

What do cosmogenic isotopes tell us about past solar forcing of climate?

In paleoclimate studies, cosmogenic isotopes are frequently used as proxy indicators of past variations in solar irradiance on centennial and millennial timescales. These isotopes are spallation products of galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) impacting Earth’s atmosphere, which are deposited and stored in terrestrial reservoirs such as ice sheets, ocean sediments and tree trunks. On timescales shorter than the variations in the geomagnetic field, they are modulated by the heliosphere and thus they are, strictly speaking, an index of heliospheric variability rather than one of solar variability. Strong evidence of climate variations associated with the production (as opposed to the deposition) of these isotopes is emerging. This raises a vital question: do cosmic rays have a direct influence on climate or are they a good proxy indicator for another factor that does (such as the total or spectral solar irradiance)? The former possibility raises further questions about the possible growth of air ions generated by cosmic rays into cloud condensation nuclei and/or the modulation of the global thunderstorm electric circuit. The latter possibility requires new understanding about the required relationship between the heliospheric magnetic fields that scatter cosmic rays and the photospheric magnetic fields which modulate solar irradiance.

Long-term variations in the open solar flux and possible links to Earth’s climate

Recent paleoclimate studies provide strong evidence for an association between cosmogenic isotope production and Earth’s climate throughout the holecene. These isotopes are generated by the bombardment of Earth’s atmosphere by galactic cosmic rays, the fluxes of which vary in approximately inverse proportion to the total open magnetic flux of the Sun. This paper discusses how results from the Ulysses spacecraft allow us to quantify the open solar flux from observations of near-Earth interplanetary space and to study its long-term variations using the homogeneous record of geomagnetic activity. A study of the results and of their accuracy is presented. The two proposed mechanisms that could lead to the open solar flux being a good proxy for solar-induced climate change are discussed: the first is the modulation of the production of some types of cloud by the air ions produced by cosmic rays; the second is a variation in the total or spectral solar irradiance, in association with changes in the open flux. Some implications for our understanding of anthropogenic climate change are discussed.

Regional climate impacts of a possible future grand solar minimum

Any reduction in global mean near-surface temperature due to a future decline in solar activity is likely to be a small fraction of projected anthropogenic warming. However, variability in ultraviolet solar irradiance is linked to modulation of the Arctic and North Atlantic Oscillations, suggesting the potential for larger regional surface climate effects. Here, we explore possible impacts through two experiments designed to bracket uncertainty in ultraviolet irradiance in a scenario in which future solar activity decreases to Maunder Minimum-like conditions by 2050. Both experiments show regional structure in the wintertime response, resembling the North Atlantic Oscillation, with enhanced relative cooling over northern Eurasia and the eastern United States. For a high-end decline in solar ultraviolet irradiance, the impact on winter northern European surface temperatures over the late twenty-first century could be a significant fraction of the difference in climate change between plausible AR5 scenarios of greenhouse gas concentrations.

Possible impacts of a future grand solar minimum on climate: stratospheric and global circulation changes

It has been suggested that the Sun may evolve into a period of lower activity over the 21st century. This study examines the potential climate impacts of the onset of an extreme ‘Maunder Minimum like’ grand solar minimum using a comprehensive global climate model. Over the second half of the 21st century, the scenario assumes a decrease in total solar irradiance of 0.12% compared to a reference RCP8.5 experiment. The decrease in solar irradiance cools the stratopause (~1 hPa) in the annual and global mean by 1.4 K. The impact on global mean near-surface temperature is small (~−0.1 K), but larger changes in regional climate occur during the stratospheric dynamically active seasons. In Northern hemisphere (NH) winter-time, there is a weakening of the stratospheric westerly jet by up to ~3-4 m s1, with the largest changes occurring in January-February. This is accompanied by a deepening of the Aleutian low at the surface and an increase in blocking over northern Europe and the north Pacific. There is also an equatorward shift in the Southern hemisphere (SH) midlatitude eddy-driven jet in austral spring. The occurrence of an amplified regional response during winter and spring suggests a contribution from a top-down pathway for solar-climate coupling; this is tested using an experiment in which ultraviolet (200–320 nm) radiation is decreased in isolation of other changes. The results show that a large decline in solar activity over the 21st century could have important impacts on the stratosphere and regional surface climate.

Behaviour of TiO(2)-SiMgO(x) hybrid composites on the solar photocatalytic degradation of polluted air

The photocatalytic performance of TiO(2)-SiMgO(x) ceramic plates for trichloroethylene abatement in gas phase has been evaluated under sun irradiance conditions. A continuous flow Pyrex glass reactor fixed on the focus of a compound parabolic collector has been used. The performance of the hybrid photocatalyst has been evaluated as the variation of TCE conversion and reaction products formation with the solar irradiance at different total gas flow, TCE concentration, and water vapour content. SiMgO(x) not only provides adsorbent properties to the photocatalyst, but it also allows the effective use of the material during low solar irradiance conditions. The adsorption-desorption phenomena play a pivotal role in the behaviour of the system. Thus, TCE conversion curves present two different branches when the sun irradiance increases (sunrise) or decreases (sunset). CO(2), COCl(2) and DCAC were the most relevant products detected. Meanwhile CO(2) concentration was insensitive to the branch analysed, COCl(2) or DCAC were not indicating the ability of these compounds to be adsorbed on the composite. An increase of the UV irradiation at total TCE conversion promotes the CO(2) selectivity. The excess of energy arriving to the reactor favours the direct reaction pathway to produce CO(2). The photonic efficiency, calculated as a function of the rate of CO(2) formation, decreases linearly with the solar irradiance up to around 2 mW cm(-2), where it becomes constant. For decontamination systems high TCE conversion is pursuit and then high solar irradiance values are required, in spite of lower photonic efficiency values. The present photocatalyst configuration, with only 17% of the reactor volume filled with the photoactive material, allows total TCE conversion for 150 ppm and 1 L min(-1) in a wide sun irradiance window from 2 to 4 mW cm(-2). The incorporation of water vapour leads to an increase of the CO(2) selectivity keeping the TCE conversion around 90%, although significant amounts of COCl(2) were observed. (c) 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.