Design of a solar incubator. Part 1: Monitoring temperature and enthalpy gradients under commercial production

The real increase in energy prices and the intention of reducing pollutant emissions in developed countries makes interesting to use solar energy in all the processes where its application is possible. As it is demonstrated in countries sited at latitudes with optimal conditions of solar radiation and temperature, it is possible to use solar energy as heat source for small-scale hatchery [1,2], but beyond, making a design for proper installation; it is possible to use solar energy as main or support energy source in medium and large size incubators . Monitoring of a normal actual process using temperature and relative humidity sensors is necessary to know the actual operating conditions that the solar heating system must be designed and sized for. Moreover, the identification and analysis of temperature and enthalpy gradients inside the incubator is of major importance.

Factores nutricionales que influyen sobre las variables productivas y el desarrollo del tracto gastrointestinal en pollitas comerciales rubias = Nutritional factors affecting productive performance and gastrointestinal tract traits in commercial brown-egg laying pullets

El objetivo general de esta Tesis doctoral fue estudiar la influencia de diversos factores nutricionales sobre los parámetros productivos y el desarrollo del tracto digestivo de pollitas rubias destinadas a la producción de huevos comerciales. Para alcanzar este objetivo se realizaron tres experimentos donde se estudió el cereal principal, el tamaño de partícula del cereal y el nivel de energía y la presentación de los piensos. En el experimento 1 se estudió la influencia del cereal (piensos con enzimas) y la presentación del pienso sobre los parámetros productivos y las características del tracto digestivo en 576 pollitas rubias de 1 a 120 d de edad. De 1 a 45 d de la edad, se utilizaron 4 piensos experimentales organizados de forma factorial con 2 cereales al 50% de inclusión (maíz vs. trigo) y 2 presentaciones del pienso (harina vs. gránulo de 2- mm de diámetro). Cada tratamiento se replicó 6 veces (24 pollitas por réplica). De 46 a 120 d de edad todas las dietas (maíz o trigo) se ofrecieron en harina y por tanto, la única diferencia entre tratamientos fue el cereal utilizado. De 1 a 120 d de edad, las pollitas que recibieron los piensos basados en maíz tuvieron una ganancia de peso vivo (PV) superior (P < 0,05) que las que recibieron los piensos basados en trigo, pero el índice de conversión (IC) fue similar para ambos grupos. De 1 a 45 d de edad, las pollitas alimentadas con gránulo consumieron más pienso (P < 0,001) y tuvieron una ganancia de peso superior (P < 0,001) que las pollitas alimentadas con harina. Gran parte de los efectos beneficiosos de la granulación sobre los parámetros productivos se mantuvieron al final de la prueba (120 d de edad). A los 45 d de edad, el peso relativo de la molleja (PR; g/kg PV) fue superior (P < 0,01) en pollitas alimentadas con maíz que en pollitas alimentadas con trigo. La alimentación en gránulo redujo el PR del tracto gastro intestinal (TGI) y de la molleja (P < 0,001), así como la longitud relativa (LR; cm/kg PV) del intestino delgado (P< 0.01) a ambas edades (45 y 120 d de edad). El tipo de cereal utilizado no afectó al pH del contenido de la molleja a 120 d de edad pero fué inferior (P < 0,01) en las pollitas que recibieron el pienso en harina de 1 a 45 d de la edad que en las que recibieron el pienso en gránulo. Se concluye que el trigo puede substituir al maíz en piensos para pollitas si se acepta una ligera reducción en la ganancia de peso. Asímismo, la alimentación en gránulo de 1 a 45 d de edad aumentó la ganancia de peso a esta edad y al final de la prueba, así como el pH de la molleja a 120 d de edad. La presentación del pienso en gránulo redujo el PR de la molleja y la LR del TGI a 120 d de edad. En el experimento 2 se utilizaron un total de 864 pollitas rubias Hy-Line de 1 d de edad para estudiar la influencia del cereal de la dieta (500 g de maíz o trigo/kg) y el tamaño de partícula del mismo (molienda con molino de martillos con un diámetro de criba de 6, 8, o 10-mm) sobre los parámetros productivos y las características del TGI de 1 a 120 d de edad. Cada uno de los 6 tratamientos se replicó 6 veces (24 pollitas por réplica). De 1 a 45 d de edad, la ganancia de PV aumentó (P< 0,001) y el IC se mejoró (P < 0,05) al reducir el tamaño de partícula del cereal, pero no se observaron diferencias en el periodo crecimiento de 45 a 120 d de edad. A los 45 d de vida, las pollitas alimentadas con maíz tendieron (P < 0,10) a tener un mayor PR del TGI y del proventrículo y una mayor LR del intestino delgado que las pollitas alimentadas con trigo. Asímismo, el PR del TGI a esta edad, aumentó (P < 0,05) a medida que aumentaba el tamaño de partícula del cereal utilizado. A los 120 d de edad, el tratamiento no afectó el PR de ninguno de los órganos del TGI ni al pH de la molleja. Sin embargo, la LR del intestino delgado fue superior (P < 0,05) para las pollitas alimentadas con trigo que para las pollitas alimentadas con maíz. La LR del TGI se redujó (P < 0,05) al aumentar el tamaño de partícula del cereal. Se concluye que el trigo puede incluirse 500 g/kg en piensos de pollitas de 1 a 120 días de edad y que el tamaño de partícula de los cereales afecta el crecimiento de las pollitas durante los primeros 45 d de vida, pero no después. Por lo tanto, se recomienda moler el cereal utilizado al inicio del período de recría (1 a 45 d de edad) con una criba de diámetro igual o inferior a 8 mm. En el experimento 3 se utilizaron un total de 1.152 pollitas rubias Hy-Line de 1 d de edad para estudiar la influencia del nivel de energía de la dieta y la presentación del pienso sobre la productividad y las características del TGI. De 1 a 45 d de edad se utilizaron 6 piensos organizados de forma factorial con 3 concentraciones energéticas (baja: 11,44 MJ; media: 12,05 MJ y alta: 12,66 MJ/kg) y 2 presentaciones del pienso (harina vs. gránulo). De 45 a 120 d todos los piensos experimentales se suministraron en forma de harina y por tanto, la única diferencia entre tratamientos fue el nivel de EMAn utilizado. Cada uno de los 6 tratamientos se replicó 8 veces y la unidad experimental fue la jaula con 24 pollitas. De 1 a 120 d de edad, la ganancia de PV y el IC mejoraron a medida que aumentó la EMAn del pienso (P < 0,001). Las pollitas alimentadas con gránulo de 1 a 45 d de edad comieron mas y tuvieron una ganancia de peso superior (P < 0,001) que las alimentadas con harina. En el global de la prueba, la ganancia de PV fue mayor (P < 0,01) para las pollitas alimentadas con piensos en gránulo. A los 45 d de edad, el PR de todos los segmentos del TGI estudiados fue inferior para las pollitas alimentadas con piensos de alta energía que para las pollitas alimentadas con piensos de media o baja energía. A 120 d de edad, el PR de la molleja fue superior (P < 0,01) para las pollitas alimentadas con piensos de baja energía que con los otros piensos. Sin embargo, la LR del TGI no se vió afectada por el nivel de energía de los piensos. A los 45 d de edad, la alimentación con gránulo redujo el PR del proventrículo (P < 0,05), de la molleja (P < 0,001) y del TGI (P < 0.001), así como la LR del intestino delgado (P < 0,05) y de los ciegos (P < 0,001). A pesar de que las pollitas solo recibieron los piensos en gránulo durante los primeros 45 d de vida, la alimentación con gránulos redujo el PR de la molleja y del proventrículo a 120 d de edad. Se concluye que la alimentación con gránulos durante los primeros 45 d de vida mejora el consumo de pienso y el PV de las pollitas a 120 d de edad. Un aumento del nivel de energía de la dieta de 12,0 a 12,7 MJ/kg mejora los parámetros productivos de 1 a 120 d de edad pero reduce el tamaño del proventrículo y de la molleja. En base de estos resultados concluimos que maíz y trigo con enzimas pueden utilizarse indistintamente en piensos para pollitas de 1 a 120 d de edad con sólo una ligera disminución del PV final con trigo. La granulación y la reducción del tamaño de partícula del cereal del pienso de primera edad (1 a 45 d de vida) y el uso de piensos de alta densidad energética, mejoran los PV a 120 d de edad. Por lo tanto, es recomendable moler los cereales con cribas de no más de 8-mm de diámetro. También, la granulación del pienso y el uso de piensos de alta energía (pobres en fibra bruta) pueden reducir el desarrollo del TGI especialmente de la molleja, lo que puede perjudicar el consumo posterior de pienso durante el inicio del ciclo de puesta. ABSTRACT The general objective of this Thesis was to study the effect of different nutritional factors on productive performance and the development of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of commercial brown egg-laying pullets from 1 to 120 d of age. In this respect, the influence of type and particle size of the cereal, and feed form, and energy content of the die,t were studied in 3 experiments. In experiment 1, the influence of the main cereal and feed form of the diet on performance and GIT traits was studied in 576 brown-egg laying pullets from 1 to 120 d of age. From 1 to 45 d of age, 4 diets arranged factorially with 2 cereals (maize vs. wheat) and 2 feed forms (mash vs. pellets) were used. Each treatment was replicated 6 times (24 pullets per replicate). From 46 to 120 d of age, all diets were offered in mash form and therefore, the only difference among diets was the cereal used. Cumulatively, pullets fed the maize diets had higher body weight (BW) gain (P< 0.05) but similar feed conversion ratio (FCR) than pullets fed the wheat diets. From 1 to 45 d of age, pullets fed pellets consumed more feed (P < 0.001) and had higher BW gain (P < 0.001) than pullets fed mash. Most of the beneficial effects of pelleting on productive performance of the birds were still evident at 120 d of age. At 45 d of age, gizzard relative weight (RW; g/kg BW) was higher (P < 0.01) in pullets fed maize than in pullets fed wheat. Feeding pellets reduced the RW of the GIT and the gizzard (P < 0.001) as well as the relative length (RL; cm/kg BW) of the small intestine (SI, P < 0.01) at both ages. The pH of the gizzard contents at 120 d of age was not affected by the main cereal of the diet, but was lower in pullets fed mash from 1 to 45 d of age (P < 0.01) than in pullets fed pellets. We conclude that wheat supplemented with enzymes can be used in substitution of maize in pullet diets with only a slight reduction in BW gain at 120 d of age. Also, feeding pellets from 1 to 45 d of age increased BW gain and pH of the gizzard, and reduced the RW of the gizzard and the RL of the GIT at 120 d of age. In experiment 2, a total of 864 brown-egg laying pullets was used to study the effects of the main cereal of the diet (500 g maize or wheat/kg) and particle size of the cereal (hammer milled to pass through a 6, 8, and 10-mm screen) on growth performance and GIT traits from 1 to 120 d of age. Each of the 6 treatments was replicated 6 times (24 pullets per replicate). Type of cereal did not affect pullet performance at any age. From 1 to 45 d of age, BW gain was increased (P < 0.001) and FCR was improved (P < 0.05) as the particle size of the cereal was reduced, but no effects were observed after this age. At 45 d of age, pullets fed maize tended (P < 0.10) to have a heavier RW of the GIT and proventriculus and a higher relative length (RL, cm/kg BW) of the SI than pullets fed wheat. Also at this age, the RW of the GIT increased (P < 0.05) with increases in particle size of the cereal. At 120 d of age, dietary treatment did not affect the RW of any of the organs studied or gizzard pH, but the RL of the SI was higher (P < 0.05) for pullets fed wheat than for pullets fed maize. Also, the RL of the SI was reduced (P < 0.05) as the particle size of the cereal increased. We conclude that 500 g wheat/kg can be included in pullet feeds from 1 to 120 d of age, and that particle size of the cereal affects pullet performance during the first 45 d of life but not thereafter. Therefore, it is recommended to grind the cereal used in this period with a screen size of no more than 8-mm. In experiment 3, a total of 1,152 one-day-old Hy-Line Brown egg laying pullets were used to study the influence of the energy content of the diet and feed form on productive performance and on several GIT traits. From 1 to 45 d of age, there were 6 diets arranged factorially with 3 concentrations of AMEn (low: 11.66 MJ/kg, medium: 12.05 MJ/kg and high: 12.66 MJ/kg) of the diet and 2 feed forms (mash vs. pellets). From 45 to 120 d all diets were fed in mash form and therefore, the only difference among treatments in this period was the energy content of the diets. Each of the 6 treatments was replicated 8 times and the experimental unit was formed by 24 pullets. Cumulatively, BW gain and FCR improved as the AMEn of the diet increased (P < 0.001). Also, pullets fed pellets from 1 to 45 d of age had higher feed intake and BW gain (P < 0.001) in this period and higher cumulative BW gain (P < 0.01) than pullets fed mash. At 45 d of age, the RWof all the segments of the GIT was lower for pullets fed the high- than for pullets fed the medium- or low- energy diets. At 120 d of age, the RW of the gizzard was higher (P < 0.01) for pullets fed the low energy diets than for pullets fed the other diets. However, the RL of the GIT was not affected by the energy content of the diet. Feeding pellets reduced the RW of the proventriculus (P < 0.05), gizzard (P < 0.001), and GIT (P < 0.001), as well as the RL of the small intestine (P < 0.05) and the ceaca (P < 0.001) at 45 d of age. The effects of feeding pellets on RW of gizzard and proventriculus were still evident at 120 d of age. We concluded that feeding pellets from 1 to 45 d of age improved feed intake and BW of pullets at 120 d of age and that an increase in the energy content of the diet increased pullet performance at all ages but reduced the RW of the proventriculus and gizzard. We conclude that maize and wheat can be used indistinctly in diets for egg laying pullets from 1 to 120 d of age, with only a slight reduction in final BW when wheat is used. Also, particle size of the cereal affects pullet performance during the first 45 d of life but not thereafter. Pelleting of the feeds, and grinding the cereal with a screen size of no more than 8-mm from 1 to 45 d of age, and the use of high density energy diets are recommended in order to achieve adequate target BW at 120 d of age. However, pelleting of the feed, very fine grinding, and the use of high AMEn diets might hinder the development of the GIT, especially that of the gizzard, which might affect feed intake of laying hens especially at the beginning of the production cycle.

Optimización de la composición del hueco de fachada en materia de eficiencia energética. Propuesta de indicador como herramienta para el análisis integral del elemento acristalado = Energy performance optimization of window systems. Proposal of an indicator as a tool for an integrated analysis of glazing

La hipótesis de esta tesis es: "La optimización de la ventana considerando simultáneamente aspectos energéticos y aspectos relativos a la calidad ambiental interior (confort higrotérmico, lumínico y acústico) es compatible, siempre que se conozcan y consideren las sinergias existentes entre ellos desde las primeras fases de diseño". En la actualidad se desconocen las implicaciones de muchas de las decisiones tomadas en torno a la ventana; para que su eficiencia en relación a todos los aspectos mencionados pueda hacerse efectiva es necesaria una herramienta que aporte más información de la actualmente disponible en el proceso de diseño, permitiendo así la optimización integral, en función de las circunstancias específicas de cada proyecto. En la fase inicial de esta investigación se realiza un primer acercamiento al tema, a través del estado del arte de la ventana; analizando la normativa existente, los componentes, las prestaciones, los elementos experimentales y la investigación. Se observa que, en ocasiones, altos requisitos de eficiencia energética pueden suponer una disminución de las prestaciones del sistema en relación con la calidad ambiental interior, por lo que surge el interés por integrar al análisis energético aspectos relativos a la calidad ambiental interior, como son las prestaciones lumínicas y acústicas y la renovación de aire. En este punto se detecta la necesidad de realizar un estudio integral que incorpore los distintos aspectos y evaluar las sinergias que se dan entre las distintas prestaciones que cumple la ventana. Además, del análisis de las soluciones innovadoras y experimentales se observa la dificultad de determinar en qué medida dichas soluciones son eficientes, ya que son soluciones complejas, no caracterizadas y que no están incorporadas en las metodologías de cálculo o en las bases de datos de los programas de simulación. Por lo tanto, se plantea una segunda necesidad, generar una metodología experimental para llevar a cabo la caracterización y el análisis de la eficiencia de sistemas innovadores. Para abordar esta doble necesidad se plantea la optimización mediante una evaluación del elemento acristalado que integre la eficiencia energética y la calidad ambiental interior, combinando la investigación teórica y la investigación experimental. En el ámbito teórico, se realizan simulaciones, cálculos y recopilación de información de distintas tipologías de hueco, en relación con cada prestación de forma independiente (acústica, iluminación, ventilación). A pesar de haber partido con un enfoque integrador, resulta difícil esa integración detectándose una carencia de herramientas disponible. En el ámbito experimental se desarrolla una metodología para la evaluación del rendimiento y de aspectos ambientales de aplicación a elementos innovadores de difícil valoración mediante la metodología teórica. Esta evaluación consiste en el análisis comparativo experimental entre el elemento innovador y un elemento estándar; para llevar a cabo este análisis se han diseñado dos espacios iguales, que denominamos módulos de experimentación, en los que se han incorporado los dos sistemas; estos espacios se han monitorizado, obteniéndose datos de consumo, temperatura, iluminancia y humedad relativa. Se ha realizado una medición durante un periodo de nueve meses y se han analizado y comparado los resultados, obteniendo así el comportamiento real del sistema. Tras el análisis teórico y el experimental, y como consecuencia de esa necesidad de integrar el conocimiento existente se propone una herramienta de evaluación integral del elemento acristalado. El desarrollo de esta herramienta se realiza en base al procedimiento de diagnóstico de calidad ambiental interior (CAI) de acuerdo con la norma UNE 171330 “Calidad ambiental en interiores”, incorporando el factor de eficiencia energética. De la primera parte del proceso, la parte teórica y el estado del arte, se obtendrán los parámetros que son determinantes y los valores de referencia de dichos parámetros. En base a los parámetros relevantes obtenidos se da forma a la herramienta, que consiste en un indicador de producto para ventanas que integra todos los factores analizados y que se desarrolla según la Norma UNE 21929 “Sostenibilidad en construcción de edificios. Indicadores de sostenibilidad”. ABSTRACT The hypothesis of this thesis is: "The optimization of windows considering energy and indoor environmental quality issues simultaneously (hydrothermal comfort, lighting comfort, and acoustic comfort) is compatible, provided that the synergies between these issues are known and considered from the early stages of design ". The implications of many of the decisions made on this item are currently unclear. So that savings can be made, an effective tool is needed to provide more information during the design process than the currently available, thus enabling optimization of the system according to the specific circumstances of each project. The initial phase deals with the study from an energy efficiency point of view, performing a qualitative and quantitative analysis of commercial, innovative and experimental windows. It is observed that sometimes, high-energy efficiency requirements may mean a reduction in the system's performance in relation to user comfort and health, that's why there is an interest in performing an integrated analysis of indoor environment aspects and energy efficiency. At this point a need for a comprehensive study incorporating the different aspects is detected, to evaluate the synergies that exist between the various benefits that meet the window. Moreover, from the analysis of experimental and innovative windows, a difficulty in establishing to what extent these solutions are efficient is observed; therefore, there is a need to generate a methodology for performing the analysis of the efficiency of the systems. Therefore, a second need arises, to generate an experimental methodology to perform characterization and analysis of the efficiency of innovative systems. To address this dual need, the optimization of windows by an integrated evaluation arises, considering energy efficiency and indoor environmental quality, combining theoretical and experimental research. In the theoretical field, simulations and calculations are performed; also information about the different aspects of indoor environment (acoustics, lighting, ventilation) is gathered independently. Despite having started with an integrative approach, this integration is difficult detecting lack available tools. In the experimental field, a methodology for evaluating energy efficiency and indoor environment quality is developed, to be implemented in innovative elements which are difficult to evaluate using a theoretical methodology This evaluation is an experimental comparative analysis between an innovative element and a standard element. To carry out this analysis, two equal spaces, called experimental cells, have been designed. These cells have been monitored, obtaining consumption, temperature, luminance and relative humidity data. Measurement has been performed during nine months and results have been analyzed and compared, obtaining results of actual system behavior. To advance this optimization, windows have been studied from the point of view of energy performance and performance in relation to user comfort and health: thermal comfort, acoustic comfort, lighting comfort and air quality; proposing the development of a methodology for an integrated analysis including energy efficiency and indoor environment quality. After theoretical and experimental analysis and as a result of the need to integrate existing knowledge, a comprehensive evaluation procedure for windows is proposed. This evaluation procedure is developed according to the UNE 171330 "Indoor Environmental Quality", also incorporating energy efficiency and cost as factors to evaluate. From the first part of the research process, outstanding parameters are chosen and reference values of these parameters are set. Finally, based on the parameters obtained, an indicator is proposed as windows product indicator. The indicator integrates all factors analyzed and is developed according to ISO 21929-1:2011"Sustainability in building construction. Sustainability indicators. Part 1: Framework for the development of indicators and a core set of indicators for buildings".

Evaluation of the reliability of commercial concentrator triple-junction solar cells by means of accelerated life tests (ALT)

A temperature accelerated life test on commercial concentrator lattice-matched GaInP/GaInAs/Ge triple-junction solar cells has been carried out. The solar cells have been tested at three different temperatures: 119, 126 and 164 °C and the nominal photo-current condition (820 X) has been emulated by injecting current in darkness. All the solar cells have presented catastrophic failures. The failure distributions at the three tested temperatures have been fitted to an Arrhenius-Weibull model. An Arrhenius activation energy of 1.58 eV was determined from the fit. The main reliability functions and parameters (reliability function, instantaneous failure rate, mean time to failure, warranty time) of these solar cells at the nominal working temperature (80 °C) have been obtained. The warranty time obtained for a failure population of 5 % has been 69 years. Thus, a long-term warranty could be offered for these particular solar cells working at 820 X, 8 hours per day at 80 °C.

Leakage and temperature aware server control for improving energy efficiency in data centers

Reducing the energy consumption for computation and cooling in servers is a major challenge considering the data center energy costs today. To ensure energy-efficient operation of servers in data centers, the relationship among computa- tional power, temperature, leakage, and cooling power needs to be analyzed. By means of an innovative setup that enables monitoring and controlling the computing and cooling power consumption separately on a commercial enterprise server, this paper studies temperature-leakage-energy tradeoffs, obtaining an empirical model for the leakage component. Using this model, we design a controller that continuously seeks and settles at the optimal fan speed to minimize the energy consumption for a given workload. We run a customized dynamic load-synthesis tool to stress the system. Our proposed cooling controller achieves up to 9% energy savings and 30W reduction in peak power in comparison to the default cooling control scheme.

Experimental analysis of energy savings and hygrothermal conditions improvement by means of air curtaines in stores with intensive pedestrian traffic

Current worldwide building legislation requirements aim to the design and construction of technical services that reduce energy consumption and improve indoor hygrothermal conditions. The retail sector in Spain, with a lot of outdated technical systems, demands energy conservation measures in order to reduce the increasingly electrical consumption for cooling. Climatic separation with modern air curtains and advanced hygrothermal control systems enables energy savings and can keep suitable indoor air temperature and humidity of stores with intense pedestrian traffic, especially when located in hot humid climates. As stated in the article, the energy savings in commercial buildings with these systems exceeds 30%

Fluorescence energy transfer dye-labeled primers for DNA sequencing and analysis.

Fluorescent dye-labeled DNA primers have been developed that exploit fluorescence energy transfer (ET) to optimize the absorption and emission properties of the label. These primers carry a fluorescein derivative at the 5' end as a common donor and other fluorescein and rhodamine derivatives attached to a modified thymidine residue within the primer sequence as acceptors. Adjustment of the donor-acceptor spacing through the placement of the modified thymidine in the primer sequence allowed generation of four primers, all having strong absorption at a common excitation wavelength (488 nm) and fluorescence emission maxima of 525, 555, 580, and 605 nm. The ET efficiency of these primers ranges from 65% to 97%, and they exhibit similar electrophoretic mobilities by gel electrophoresis. With argon-ion laser excitation, the fluorescence of the ET primers and of the DNA sequencing fragments generated with ET primers is 2- to 6-fold greater than that of the corresponding primers or fragments labeled with single dyes. The higher fluorescence intensity of the ET primers allows DNA sequencing with one-fourth of the DNA template typically required when using T7 DNA polymerase. With single-stranded M13mp18 DNA as the template, a typical sequencing reaction with ET primers on a commercial sequencer provided DNA sequences with 99.8% accuracy in the first 500 bases. ET primers should be generally useful in the development of other multiplex DNA sequencing and analysis methods.

Sustainable Energy Plan for a Small Island Economy: St. Vincent & the Grenadines

This paper defines a sustainable energy plan to provide the basis for renewable energy initiatives that will increase energy security, reduce negative economic impacts and provide a cleaner environment. The hotel, agriculture, transportation, construction, utility, government and private sectors will play pivotal roles in achieving targets and will see significant gains. Government policies, educational campaigns and financial incentives will be required to facilitate and encourage renewable energy development and entrepreneurship. Utilization of solar energy, energy conservation measures and the use of efficient and alternative fuel vehicles by the commercial/industrial and private sectors will be crucial in meeting targets. The utility company will be charged with developing large scale renewable energy applications and with improving efficiency of the electrical system.

Energy Union: Can Europe learn from Japan’s joint gas purchasing? CEPS Commentary, 11 December 2014

Japan’s two major electricity producing companies reached a preliminary agreement recently to establish a joint venture for the procurement of fossil fuel resources, primarily liquefied natural gas (LNG). The authors of this commentary ask whether this commercial initiative could serve as an example to Europe of how to increase the negotiating power of individual EU member states. They conclude that a private joint gas procurement company may indeed offer a solution for EU member states in Central and Eastern Europe, instead of yet another source of confrontation. Given the political volatility in the region, it could well be the key to balancing out the need for security of supply with an offer to guarantee security of demand, thereby creating the climate for stable commercial relations.

Gazprom’s evolving strategy in a new commercial and political context: how should the EU react? EPC Policy Brief, 27 April 2015

After years of unchallenged commercial domination of a sizeable portion of the EU's gas market, Gazprom is confronted with a statement of objections issued on 22 April by the EU Commission for abusing its dominant market position. The company was already prevented from going ahead with its South Stream project aimed at consolidating Gazprom's grip on Southeast Europe's markets by bypassing Ukraine – due to alleged non-compliance of intergovernmental agreements with the EU regulatory framework. Furthermore, it walked away from negotiations that could have allowed it to access more than 50% of the OPAL pipeline – an onshore branch of the offshore Russian German Nord Stream pipeline –, whilst its attempts to go downstream through the acquisition of European distribution and transmission operators, such as Wingas and DESFA, failed due to current political tensions and the risk of a negative Commission ruling on the operation. Does this mean that the Russian gas behemoth – so often portrayed as the energy arm of the Kremlin – is not so powerful after all? This Policy Brief aims to frame the erosion of Gazprom's power in a wider perspective, analysing its peculiar position at a time of transition, with the global gas business going from a sellers' to a buyers' market, and providing recommendations on how Europe should deal with it. It will be argued that Gazprom – despite still being affected by the Kremlin's political priorities – is moving towards more commercially sound behavior. The EU should profit from this evolution without being tempted by mercantilist options, and rather use the political momentum provided by the energy union to remove barriers to solidarity and to increase competition on the trading platforms.

The Energy Performance of Buildings: Promises Still Unfulfilled. Egmont Paper No. 78, May 2015

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY All observers agree that energy efficiency must be the cornerstone of any serious EU energy strategy. In this general context, the EU building sector is critical. It represents about 40% of EU final energy consumption (residential houses, public/private offices, commercial buildings, etc.) and approximately 36% of EU CO2 emissions. This is massive. The EU has certainly not been inactive in this field. The Energy Performance in Buildings Directive 2002/91/EC (EPBD) was the first and the main instrument to address the problem of the energy performance of buildings. It has established numerous principles: a reliable methodology which enables the calculation and rating of the energy performance of buildings; minimum energy performance standards for new buildings and existing buildings under major renovation; energy performance certificates; regular inspection of heating and air-conditioning systems; and, finally, quality standards for inspections and energy performance certificates. They were strengthened in 2010 by the recast Directive 2010/31/EU. This directive also introduces a decisive concept for the development of the building sector: ‘nearly zeroenergy buildings’. In 2012, the new Energy Efficiency Directive 2012/27/EU dealt with other aspects. In the building sector, three of them are particularly important. They concern: (1) the establishment of long-term strategies for mobilizing investment in the renovation of the national building stocks; (2) the introduction of energy saving schemes for ‘designated’ energy companies with a view to reducing consumption among ‘final consumers’ by 1.5% annually; and (3), as an option, the setting up of an Energy Efficiency National Fund to support energy efficiency initiatives. This paper also briefly examines the different instruments put in place to disseminate information and consultation, and the EU funding for energy efficiency in buildings. Results, however, have remained limited until now. The improvement of the energy performance of buildings and the rhythm of renovation remain extremely weak. Member States’ unwillingness to timely and properly transpose and implement the Directives continues despite the high degree of flexibility permitted. The decentralized approach chosen for some specific aspects and the differentiation in the application of EPBD standards between Member States do not appear optimal either. Adequate financial schemes remain rare. The permanent deficit of qualified and trained personnel and the inertia of public authorities to make the public understand the stakes in this domain remain problematic. Hence the need to take new initiatives to reap the benefits that the building sector is meant to bring.

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