The Spanish corporate structure through interlocking directorates

[EN] The aim of this paper is to determine to what extent globalization pressures are changing interlocking directorate networks modeled on continental capitalism into Anglo-Saxon models. For this purpose we analyse the Spanish network of interlocks, comparing the present structure (2012) with that of 1993 and 2006. We show how, although Spanish corporative structure continues to display characteristics of the continental economies, some major banks are significantly reducing industrial activity. Nevertheless, the financial organizations continue to maintain a close relationship with sectors such as construction and services. The analysis of the network of directorates shows a retreat in activity of industrial banking in Spain. Two large Spanish financial institutions, BSCH and La Caixa, continue to undertake activities of industrial banking in 2006, but this activity is significantly reduced in 2012. According to the theories on the role of the interlocking directorates, the companies in these sectors assure their access to banking credit by incorporating advisors from financial organizations to their board of directors. We cannot conclude that the structure of the Spanish corporate network has become a new case of Anglo-Saxon structure, but we got indications that are becoming less hierarchic as banks seem to slowly abandon centrality positions. This is especially salient if we compare the networks of 2006 and 2012, which show a continuing decrease of the role of banks and insurance companies in the network.

Crecimiento y transformación de la economía vasca: las Cajas de Ahorros del País Vasco, 1980-2011.

[ES]En estos últimos años, en cualquier medio de comunicación hemos podido ver o escuchar la situación de las cajas de ahorros españolas, las cuales han desarrollado un cambio radical. Por una parte, a causa de la crisis que comenzó el 2008 muchas entidades financieras, sobre todo las cajas de ahorros, tuvieron problemas muy graves de solvencia. Consecuentemente se llevó a cabo un proceso de reestructuración donde estas entidades o transfirieron el negocio financiero a un banco o se fusionaron para crear uno nuevo. Así, las necesidades de capital que tenían bastantes cajas para alcanzar los ratios de solvencia exigidas por los reguladores ha hecho que el peso de esas cajas pertenecientes a los ahora bancos se haya reducido llegando a desaparecer la naturaleza de estas instituciones. Por ello voy a realizar un estudio sobre los problemas de este sector, más enfocado a lo que se refiere al País Vasco y el estado de una de las tres cajas vascas, concretamente la BBK, para determinar si el modelo de este tipo de entidades que tantas veces ha sido criticada puede ser adecuado o es cierto que este cambio era inminente.

Aplicação da Teoria do Valor Extremo e Copulas para avaliar risco de mercado de ações brasileiras

As instituições financeiras são obrigadas por acordos internacionais, como o Acordo de Basiléia, a avaliar o risco de mercado ao qual a instituição está propensa de forma a evitar possíveis contaminações de desastres financeiros em seu patrimônio. Com o intuito de capturar tais fenômenos, surge a necessidade de construir modelos que capturem com mais acurácia movimentos extremos das séries de retornos. O trabalho teve como principal objetivo aplicar a Teoria do Valor Extremo juntamente com Copulas na estimação de quantis extremos para o VaR. Ele utiliza técnicas de simulação de Monte Carlo, Teoria do Valor Extremo e Cópulas com distribuições gaussianas e t. Em contrapartida, as estimativas produzidas serão comparadas com as de um segundo modelo, chamado de simulação histórica de Monte Carlo filtrada, mais conhecida como filtered historical simulation (FHS). As técnicas serão aplicadas a um portfólio de ações de empresas brasileiras.

Principales fuentes de financiación de la empresa vasca

Este trabajo, analiza las diferentes fuentes de financiación que utilizan las empresas vascas para financiar sus proyectos. Con el objetivo, de conocer el grado de importancia que conceden tanto a la financiación propia como a la ajena, en sus balances. También estudia, la dependencia que tienen las principales empresas vascas con las entidades financieras. Por último, se observa como las empresas están llevando a cabo un proceso de desendeudamiento y de búsqueda de alternativas a la financiación bancaria.

O credit scoring em apoio ao risco de crédito: a identificação de variáveis que contribuem no sucesso da implantação de empresas franqueadas

A concessão de crédito a empresas que participam do mercado consiste na entrega de um ativo em determinado momento, com a promessa de pagamento deste bem ou direito em data futura. Tal situação se configura como um evento incerto, pois existe a possibilidade de que tal obrigação não seja honrada pela promitente compradora, originando desta forma, o risco de crédito. Cabe à parte concessora do ativo que origina o risco de crédito, verificar a capacidade de seu cliente em cumprir o compromisso futuro assumido, analisando as variáveis que sugerem o sucesso da operação de crédito. As empresas que se encontram em fase de implantação caracterizam-se não somente pela ausência de histórico das variáveis acima, como também pelo aumento considerável do risco de continuidade. Tal situação é comprovada por pesquisas realizadas em empresas com até cinco anos de atuação. A impossibilidade na mensuração da capacidade de crédito proporcionada por este cenário, ocasiona severa restrição creditícia às empresas novas, principalmente ao crédito de longo prazo, imprescindível nesta fase de investimentos. Entretanto, esta restrição não se verifica em empresas de franquia, cujo empreendedor tem o privilégio de iniciar seu negócio com linhas de crédito de investimentos já prontas no mercado com esta finalidade. Este estudo objetiva identificar quais as características presentes em empresas franqueadas que permitem a concessão de crédito segura na fase de implantação por parte das instituições financeiras e se tais características podem discriminar variáveis que são determinantes no sucesso da franqueada proponente ao crédito bancário. A aplicação de análise fatorial em banco de dados com empresas de franquia permitiu identificar com sucesso um grupo de sete principais variáveis principais, que serviram de base a um modelo de regressão logística e análise discriminante. O modelo de regressão logística mostrou-se bom para a melhora da probabilidade de acerto de empresas solventes ao passo que a análise discriminante não apresentou melhora nesses resultados.

Responsabilidade socioambiental da empresa de petróleo e gás

O contexto da modernização reflexiva leva ao questionamento sobre o papel das instituições tradicionais, notadamente o Poder Executivo. É possível pressupor que o modelo da sociedade de risco se reflete em alterações no direito e na economia do Brasil. Os riscos tornaram-se uma constante e exigem substituições nas formas de atuação social, o que Ulrich Beck denomina de subpolítica. A mudança é sentida especialmente em setores centrais para economia, tais como o de petróleo e gás, enquanto os riscos globais são sentidos na crise ambiental. Uma vez que as instituições, na Sociedade de Risco, são levadas a rever sua atuação, o empresariado recebe a tarefa de encontrar mecanismos para superar a crise ambiental. A responsabilidade socioambiental da empresa passa a ser exigida como contrapartida pelos lucros obtidos, especialmente para atividades potencialmente poluentes, como a petrolífera. O princípio da precaução, o desenvolvimento sustentável e a equação financeira do contrato podem ser vetores para a adoção da responsabilidade socioambiental pela indústria petrolífera. Mas para que esta possa ser vista como uma nova razão pública deve se demonstrar que ela pode motivar a evolução da sociedade como um todo. A Rio+20 definiu a economia verde como uma nova meta, principalmente para as atividades potencialmente poluentes. O objetivo central do trabalho é investigar a regulação das empresas de petróleo e gás, especialmente sobre a possibilidade de adoção da responsabilidade socioambiental. Ressalte-se que esta visa impor medidas de conservação e ações pró meio ambiente, além daquelas já estipuladas por força legal ou pelo licenciamento ambiental. A pesquisa visa apresentar possíveis soluções para os questionamentos acima, garantindo segurança jurídica para empresas de petróleo e gás, mas ao mesmo tempo visando ampliar a sustentabilidade do setor, propondo novas regras que podem ser adotadas nos editais de licitação e nos contratos de concessão e partilha de produção. Em um momento que se debate a possibilidade de direcionamento dos royalties do petróleo exclusivamente para a educação o estudo de medidas jurídicas para implementar a responsabilidade socioambiental no setor petrolífero torna-se ainda mais necessária.

Mudança no Critério de Contabilização de Instrumentos Financeiros pelo IASB: estudo de evento sobre os títulos soberanos da Grécia,

A alteração feita pelo IASB em 2008 na classificação dos instrumentos financeiros para reduzir as perdas bancárias com a crise do subprime e de títulos soberanos dos países-membros da União Europeia, após um pedido protocolado pela Comissão da União Europeia, motivou esta pesquisa. A referida alteração ensejou a mudança do critério de avaliação, que passou de valor justo para valor amortizado, para os instrumentos reclassificados, muito embora alguns bancos não tenham aderido à reclassificação, mantendo a orientação original que determinava a avaliação pelo valor justo. Através de Estudo de Evento testou-se a Hipótese de Eficiência de Mercado - HEM, analisando 33 instituições bancárias detentoras de títulos soberanos gregos. Embora a alteração tenha colaborado para que essas instituições bancárias protelassem essas perdas no resultado, não afetou os fluxos de caixa futuros. E como evidenciam os resultados da pesquisa, o mercado foi equitativo com essas instituições, penalizando-as com base no grau de exposição aos títulos gregos, independentemente do critério utilizado, corroborando a HEM: o valor de um ativo é o valor presente dos fluxos de caixa futuros e não dos lucros. Uma consequência importante foi que os governos, através da terceira revisão do Acordo de Capital de Basileia, adotaram medidas para regulamentar com mais rigor as instituições financeiras, no intuito que essas instituições, futuramente, possam suportar melhor os efeitos de uma crise financeira.

The Kosovo Bombing Campaign

Wheeler, Nicholas. 'The Kosovo Bombing Campaign', In: The Politics of International Law, C. Reus-Smit (Ed.), (Cambridge Studies in International Relations 96. Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 189-216, 2004. 1. Introduction Christian Reus-Smit; 2. The politics of international law Christian Reus-Smit; 3. When states use armed force Dino Kritsiotis; 4. Soft law, hard politics, and the Climate Change Treaty Robyn Eckersley; 5. Emerging customary norms, and anti-personnel landmines Richard Price; 6. International law, politics, and migrant rights Amy Gurowitz; 7. The International Criminal Court David Wippman; 8. The Kosovo bombing campaign Nicholas Wheeler; 9. International financial institutions Antony Anghie; 10. Law, politics, and international governance Wayne Sandholtz and Alec Stone Sweet; 11. Socety, power, and ethics Christian Reus-Smit. RAE2008

Public-public partnerships (PUPs) in water

Water operators need to be efficient, accountable, honest public institutions providing a universal service. Many water services however lack the institutional strength, the human resources, the technical expertise and equipment, or the financial or managerial capacity to provide these services. They need support to develop these capacities. The vast majority of water operators in the world are in the public sector – 90% of all major cities are served by such bodies. This means that the largest pool of experience and expertise, and the great majority of examples of good practice and sound institutions, are to be found in existing public sector water operators. Because they are public sector, however, they do not have any natural commercial incentive to provide international support. Their incentive stems from solidarity, not profit. Since 1990, however, the policies of donors and development banks have focussed on the private companies and their incentives. The vast resources of the public sector have been overlooked, even blocked by pro-private policies. Out of sight of these global policy-makers, however, a growing number of public sector water companies have been engaged, in a great variety of ways, in helping others develop the capacity to be effective and accountable public services. These supportive arrangements are now called 'public-public partnerships' (PUPs). A public-public partnership (PUP) is simply a collaboration between two or more public authorities or organisations, based on solidarity, to improve the capacity and effectiveness of one partner in providing public water or sanitation services. They have been described as: “a peer relationship forged around common values and objectives, which exclude profit-seeking”.1 Neither partner expects a commercial profit, directly or indirectly. This makes PUPs very different from the public–private partnerships (PPPs) which have been promoted by the international financial institutions (IFIs) like the World Bank. The problems of PPPs have been examined in a number of reports. A great advantage of PUPs is that they avoid the risks of such partnerships: transaction costs, contract failure, renegotiation, the complexities of regulation, commercial opportunism, monopoly pricing, commercial secrecy, currency risk, and lack of public legitimacy.2 PUPs are not merely an abstract concept. The list in the annexe to this paper includes over 130 PUPs in around 70 countries. This means that far more countries have hosted PUPs than host PPPs in water – according to a report from PPIAF in December 2008, there are only 44 countries with private participation in water. These PUPs cover a period of over 20 years, and been used in all regions of the world. The earliest date to the 1980s, when the Yokohama Waterworks Bureau first started partnerships to help train staff in other Asian countries. Many of the PUP projects have been initiated in the last few years, a result of the growing recognition of PUPs as a tool for achieving improvements in public water management. This paper attempts to provide an overview of the typical objectives of PUPs; the different forms of PUPs and partners involved; a series of case studies of actual PUPs; and an examination of the recent WOPs initiative. It then offers recommendations for future development of PUPs.

An Investigation into the Link between UK Credit Union Characterisitics, Location and their Success

The unique characteristics of credit unions reduces the information asymmetry that is prevalent in credit making decisions, enabling them to provide loans where other financial institutions cannot. This makes them a potential tool in the fight against financial exclusion. Yet, the UK credit union movement is not regarded as being successful, even though there is evidence of much financial exclusion. This study is cross sectional in form, and evaluates characteristics that may contribute to the success of the UK credit union movement at national and regional level, in 2000. The findings are used to consider the impact of recent regulatory changes on the movement. The key findings are that there is a significant relationship between the success of a credit union, its size and the deprivation of the ward from which it sources its members. More specifically, larger credit unions and those located in more affluent wards, are more successful. Affiliation to the Irish League of Credit Unions and having a common bond of occupation, are also found to be contributing factors to credit union success. These results are taken as providing support for the recent changes implemented by the Financial Services Authority (FSA), which is likely to result in the emergence of larger credit unions (through mergers), run by appropriately qualified persons, serving a more mixed-income membership base. It is, however, noted that the history of the UK movement is one of missed opportunities and only time will tell whether credit unions have the wherewithal to accept current opportunities.

China's Sovereign Wealth Funds: Problem or Panacea?

China’s impressive economic growth has led to the accumulation of massive financial assets. The emergence of sovereign wealth funds (SWFs), as a governmental investment device for its excessive foreign reserves, symbolizes a major rebalancing of economic power. With its investment portfolios drastically diversified for well-established financial institutions as well as some strategic sectors, a seminal debate seems centered on whether China’s SWFs are in furtherance of purely commercial or geopolitically strategic purposes. Under the sophisticated hard laws associated with international initiatives, it is unlikely that the SWFs-related investment would distort the global financial system, and genuinely threaten national security, which assumption may only exist at a hypothetical level. The potential protectionism would inevitably retard the world economy’s recovery, were it not to be proportionately addressed. A most significant necessity appears to be to strike a proportionate balance between sustaining the credibility of open investment environment and efficiently minimizing implications of SWFs political arenas.

Regulatory regime change in Turkish banks:Reactive or proactive?

This paper examines the positive contributions made toward restructuring the regulatory framework of Turkey's banking and financial sectors prior to and post the 2000–2001 financial crisis. Drawing on a framework initially developed by Onis and Senses, 2007 and Onis and Senses, 2009 and further referred to by Onis, 2009 and Onis, 2010 it argues that financial reforms undertaken by the Turkish government would not have been successful without the strong support of domestic coalitions. While the external pressures put on the Turkish government from the International Monetary Fund, The World Bank and the European Union for financial reforms were necessary to kick start the reforms as a reactive process, these pressures on their own may have served only the interests of financial business elites at the expense of the broader stakeholders. Empirical data for the study was collected from documentary analysis of key financial institutions and interviews with twenty major Turkish regulatory agents and other stakeholders. The paper then discusses how the perceptions of these stakeholders are embodied into, and have influenced, regulatory regime change in Turkey from a reactive state to a more proactive one.

An Empirical Analysis of Scale and Scope Economies and Technical Change in an Irish Multiproduct Banking Firm

In contrast to most empirical investigations of the efficiency of multiproduct financial institutions, which either estimate scale and scope economies with a given state of technology, or only analyse technical change in the presence of overall scale economies, this study estimates overall scale economies, product-specific scale economies and scope economies in the presence of both neutral and non-neutral technical change. Also, in contrast to most other empirical studies in this area, standard errors are computed for all relevant statistics. The findings indicate diseconomies of scope; overall diseconomies of scale; product-specific economies are decreasing for investments and increasing for loans; in addition to substantial neutral technical change, biased technical change is labour- and capital-saving and deposits-using in character.

Irresponsible Lending?: A Case Study of a U.K. Credit Industry Reform Initiative

There are major concerns about the level of personal borrowing, particularly sourced from credit cards. This paper charts the progress of an initiative to create a Responsible Lending Index (RLI) for the credit industry. The RLI proposed to voluntarily benchmark lending standards and promote best practice within the credit industry by involving suppliers of credit, customer representatives and regulators. However, despite initial support from some banks, consumer bodies and the Chair of the Treasury Select Committee, it failed to gain sufficient support from financial institutions in its original format. The primary reasons for this were related to the complexity of building such a robust index and the banks trade body’s fear of exposing its members to public scrutiny. A revised alternative, the Responsible Lending Initiative, was proposed which took into account these concerns. However, the Association of Payment Clearing Service (APACS), the trade body of the credit industry, then effectively destroyed the proposal. This article describes an attempt to address the challenges in the credit card industry with the initiation of the RLI, reflected in stakeholder discourse and in the context of a wider concern expressed by the involved stakeholders in terms of the need for greater responsibility in the banking industry’s lending practices.

The Impact of Extension and Ecosystem Services on Smallholders’ Credit Constraint.

On formal credit markets, access to formal credit and reasonable credit terms of smallholder farmers
in rural sub-Saharan Africa is limited due to adverse selection. Financial institutions operating in
rural areas often cannot distinguish between borrowers (farmers) that are creditworthy and those that
are not, thus, allocate limited resource to agriculture to reduce credit risk. In the presence of limited business quality signaling by smallholder farmers, financial institutions shall demand for collateral and/or offer unfavorable contract terms. Moreover, agricultural productivity of rural sub-Saharan
Africa, dominated by subsistence or small-scale farmers, is also negatively impacted by the adverse
effect of climate change. A strategy that may make the farming practices of smallholder farmer’s
climate resilient and profitable may also improve smallholder farmer's access to formal credit. This
study investigates to what extent participating in ecosystem and extension services (EES) programs
signals business quality of smallholders, thus granting them credit accessibility. We collected data
on 210 smallholder farmers in 2013, comprising farmers that receive payments for ecosystem
services (PES) and farm management training from the International Small Group Tree Planting
Program (TIST) Kenya to test the aforementioned theory empirically. We use game theory,
particularly a screening and sorting model, to illustrate the prospects for farmers with EES to access
formal credit and to improve their credit terms given that they receive PES and banking services
training. Furthermore, the PES’ long term duration (10 – 30 years) generates stable cash-flow which
may be perceived as collateral substitute. Results suggest that smallholder farmers in the TIST
program were less likely to be credit constraint compared to non-TIST farmers. Distance to market,
education, livestock and farm income are factors that determine access to credit from microfinance
institutions in rural Kenya. Amongst farmers that have obtained loans, those keeping business records
enjoy more favorable formal credit conditions. These farmers were observed to pay ca. 5 percent less
interest rate in microfinance charges. For TIST farmers, this type of farm management practices may
be attributed to the banking services and other training they receive within the program. While the
availability of classical collateral (farmlands) and PES may reduce interest rate, the latter was found
to be statistically insignificant. This research underlines the importance of an effective extension
services in rural areas of developing countries and the need to improve gains from conservation
agriculture and ensuing PES. The benefits associated with EES and PES may encompass agricultural
financing.