Malaysian and Australian male and female middle managers : a cross-cultural comparison of workplace attitudes, aspirations for promotion, and self-rated leadership styles

This paper outlines the rise of women in management worldwide, and considers why so few women achieve senior or executive management positions. This slow advance of women into senior roles is unexpected given that the changes in organisations today are believed to require more ‘feminine leadership’. A decrease in the emphasis on masculine characteristics for managers is reported, and a requirement that more ‘feminine leadership’ needs to be adopted by organisations in order to ensure their survival in the future (Powell, Butterfield & Parent, 2002, p.189). Recent empirical research reports that there are differences in leadership style between male and female managers, and the findings suggest that women exhibit more transformational leadership than their male counterparts, with this style being strongly equated with effective leadership (Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, van Engen, 2003). However, these findings are based on western research, and it may be that cross cultural research will yield a different picture (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). Leadership and leadership styles may be conceptualised differently in a more paternalistic society. To explore this possibility, a cross cultural study was conducted in Malaysia and Australia. It is hypothesised that countries that are paternalistic in cultural values will exhibit a stronger constraint on women in management roles, which may impact on workplace attitudes, aspirations for promotion and style of leadership exhibited. Therefore, it is possible that the career advancement of women may be more problematic for Malaysian managerial women than their Australian counterparts. Results from an initial pilot study in Malaysia and Australia are outlined, and highlight some interesting similarities and differences to what are reported in the western literature.

Managing stakeholder 'push back', an exploratory investigation into dealing with negative cross cultural communication in a global environment

This paper addresses the issue of a current business phenomenon – ‘push back’. This phenomenon has been experienced by a number of transnational companies. It is embedded in the challenges of cross-cultural communication and involves the linkage of local culture activists with globalisation acitivists in an alliance to stop business growth. This exploratory investigation examines three multinational organisations using qualitative research. From the findings a model has been developed in an attempt to provide practitioners with a framework with which to understand ‘push back’. The complexity of combating alliances of this nature raises challenges for the current approaches to marketing and the need for a multi-stakeholder approach in cross-cultural communication is suggested.

Understanding cross-cultural negotiation : A model integrating affective events theory and communication accommodation theory

Business interactions are increasingly crossing boundaries. Boundary crossing is a process of joining or parting people. Negotiation is the media of this process. This paper is an attempt to bridge the boundaries of strategic business negotiation, communication and emotion in a cross-cultural context. In particular, we argue that miscommunications are ‘boundary crossing mishaps’. Such mishaps are affected by negotiators’ understanding of the respective cultures of the parties, negotiation skill, affective cultural background of the parties, cultural differences, emotional awareness and regulation, negative affect and discrepancy in convergence divergence between the interactants. When too many of these hassles or mishaps occur, negotiation breaks down. In this way, it is the accumulation of many little things, many little misunderstandings, that break negotiation.

Marketing competencies : a cross-cultural study in a multinational company

Most research into international marketing focuses on the differences in markets across countries and cultures in terms of the variation in customers and products involved. Arguably, if different products are developed and offered to different customers, then the roles and requirements of marketing employees may reflect these differences also. This research study used self-report measures by marketing employees in a large multinational automotive company in Australia and Britain. Using structural equation modelling, the study found that the relationship between individual marketing competencies and marketing performance varied across countries, suggesting that there may be cultural differences that influence both the role of managers in improving performance, and the degree to which a marketing employee’s intention to perform results in actual performance.

Corporate codes of ethics in Australia, Canada and USA : measurement and structural properties of a cross-cultural model

The objective is to test the consistency of measurement and structural properties in a model of corporate codes of ethics (CCE) on an aggregated level and across multiple samples derived from three countries, namely Australia, Canada and the USA. The properties of four constructs of CCE are described and tested, these being: surveillance/training, internal communication, external communication, and guidance. The conclusion is that the measurement and structural models on an aggregated level have a satisfactory fit, validity and reliability. Furthermore, they are consistent when tested on each of the three samples (i.e. cross-validated). The cross-cultural model makes a contribution in addition to previous mostly descriptive studies and theory in the field using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling.

lntercultural hermeneutics and the cross-cultural subject

The paper critically engages with contemporary theories of cross-cultural understanding and cross-cultural subjectivity found in the areas of intercultural hermeneutics, intercultural social theory and the discourse on the stranger. Drawing on Gadamerian hermeneutics the paper takes some preliminary steps in formulating an alternative conception of the in-between subject and cross-cultural interpretation that incorporates the ambivalence of boundaries, the enabling dimension of essentialism and acknowledges the role that fore-meanings and fore-structures have on cross-cultural understanding. In contrast to existing theories I conclude that the cross-cultural subject is situated within the intercultural encounter rather than dwelling above it.

Review of prevalence data in, and evaluation of methods for cross cultural adaptation of, UK surveys on tobacco and alcohol in ethnic minority groups

Objective To assess the adequacy of cross cultural adaptations of survey questions on self reported tobacco and alcohol consumption in the United Kingdom.

Design Assessment of consistency of data between studies identified through literature review. Studies evaluated with 12 guidelines developed from the research literature on achieving cross cultural comparability.

Results The literature review identified 18 key studies, five of them on national samples. Survey instruments were obtained for 15 of these. The comparison of prevalence data in national surveys showed some important discrepancies, greater for tobacco than for alcohol. For example, prevalence of cigarette smoking in Bangladeshi women was 6% in a national survey in 1994 and 1% in a national survey in 1999; in Chinese men it was 31% in a survey in 1993-4 and 17% in one in 1999; in African-Caribbean men it was 29% in a 1992 survey and 42% in one in 1993-4. The most guidelines met by any study was three, although one study partly met a fourth. Two studies met no guidelines. Only four studies consulted with ethnic minority communities in developing the questionnaire, none checked each language version with all others, and two stated the questionnaire had not been validated.

Conclusions Surveys have not followed best practice in relation to measurement of risk factors in cross cultural settings. There is inconsistency in the prevalence data on smoking provided by different major national UK studies. Users of such data should be aware of their limitations. Research is needed to help achieve linguistic equivalence of survey questions in cross cultural research.

Cross-cultural adaptation of a tobacco questionnaire for Punjabi, Cantonese, Urdu and Sylheti speakers: qualitative research for better clinical practice, cessation services and research.Â

Objective : To develop cross‐culturally valid and comparable questionnaires for use in clinical practice, tobacco cessation services and multiethnic surveys on tobacco use.
Methods : Key questions in Urdu, Cantonese, Punjabi and Sylheti on tobacco use were compiled from the best existing surveys. Additional items were translated by bilingual coworkers. In one‐to‐one and group consultations, lay members of the Pakistani, Chinese, Indian Sikh and Bangladeshi communities assessed the appropriateness of questions. Questionnaires were developed and field tested. Cross‐cultural comparability was judged in a discussion between the researchers and coworkers, and questionnaires were finalised. Questionnaires in Cantonese (written and verbal forms differ) and Sylheti (no script in contemporary use) were written as spoken to avoid spot translations by interviewers.
Results : The Chinese did not use bidis, hookahs or smokeless tobacco, so these topics were excluded for them. It was unacceptable for Punjabi Sikhs to use tobacco. For the Urdu speakers and Sylheti speakers there was no outright taboo, particularly for men, but it was not encouraged. Use of paan was common among women and men. Many changes to existing questions were necessary to enhance cultural and linguistic appropriateness—for example, using less formal language, or rephrasing to clarify meaning. Questions were modified to ensure comparability across languages, including English.
Conclusion : Using theoretically recommended approaches, a tobacco‐related questionnaire with face and content validity was constructed for Urdu, Punjabi, Cantonese and Sylheti speakers, paving the way for practitioners to collect more valid data to underpin services, for sounder research and ultimately better tobacco control. The methods and lessons are applicable internationally.

Insights from research on cross-cultural validation of health-related questionnaires : the role of bilingual project workers and lay participants

This article discusses the recruitment and training of bilingual project workers and their role in data gathering; the level of comprehension of the interviewees with regard to the nature of the task and its alien nature; the contribution of social customs and expectations; the vagaries of language; the researchers' level of comprehension of data collected across a range of languages; the feelings of loss of control by the researchers over the research process; and issues of communication with bilingual project workers. The authors draw on two studies designed to assess the adequacy of questionnaire translations from English into four ethnic minority languages: Cantonese, Punjabi, Urdu and Sylheti. Bilingual project workers were recruited to carry out interviews and focus groups with the lay communities and to feed back results in English to the researchers. The authors conclude that researchers should be aware of the influence of social and contextual factors when carrying out research with ethnic minority participants mediated by bilingual project workers.

Sustaining collaborations : creative research and cross-cultural engagement

Increasingly, the linear, instrumentalist and culturally hegemonic character of dominant sustainability discourse is under critique, with the term accruing new or expanded associations that challenge the its future-oriented, temporally stable, and ontologically determinate history. In Australia, these shifts take in a recognition that indigenous Australian understandings of and relationships with the environment profoundly challenge the generic claims of sustainability applied to both theory and practice. But how do these radically different and still marginal understandings actually enter into the process of producing sustainable designs on the world? This paper will report on the beginnings of a collaborative project that seeks to advance a proposal for an Aboriginal cultural precinct in the heart of Melbourne. This project's intention is to develop innovative methods for consultation and participation through collaborative creative research between Aboriginal artists and academic architects. The paper will discuss this method as a strategy for moving beyond traditional modes of cross-cultural engagement in the design and construction of sustainable cultural precincts.