Plasticity of the cochleotopic (frequency) map in specialized and nonspecialized auditory cortices

Auditory conditioning (associative learning) causes reorganization of the cochleotopic (frequency) maps of the primary auditory cortex (AI) and the inferior colliculus. Focal electric stimulation of the AI also evokes basically the same cortical and collicular reorganization as that caused by conditioning. Therefore, part of the neural mechanism for the plasticity of the central auditory system caused by conditioning can be explored by focal electric stimulation of the AI. The reorganization is due to shifts in best frequencies (BFs) together with shifts in frequency-tuning curves of single neurons. In the AI of the Mongolian gerbil (Meriones unguiculatus) and the posterior division of the AI of the mustached bat (Pteronotus parnellii), focal electric stimulation evokes BF shifts of cortical auditory neurons located within a 0.7-mm distance along the frequency axis. The amount and direction of BF shift differ depending on the relationship in BF between stimulated and recorded neurons, and between the gerbil and mustached bat. Comparison in BF shift between different mammalian species and between different cortical areas of a single species indicates that BF shift toward the BF of electrically stimulated cortical neurons (centripetal BF shift) is common in the AI, whereas BF shift away from the BF of electrically stimulated cortical neurons (centrifugal BF shift) is special. Therefore, we propose a hypothesis that reorganization, and accordingly organization, of cortical auditory areas caused by associative learning can be quite different between specialized and nonspecialized (ordinary) areas of the auditory cortex.

Simvastatin strongly reduces levels of Alzheimer's disease β-amyloid peptides Aβ42 and Aβ40 in vitro and in vivo

Recent epidemiological studies show a strong reduction in the incidence of Alzheimer's disease in patients treated with cholesterol-lowering statins. Moreover, elevated Aβ42 levels and the ɛ4 allele of the lipid-carrier apolipoprotein E are regarded as risk factors for sporadic and familial Alzheimer's disease. Here we demonstrate that the widely used cholesterol-lowering drugs simvastatin and lovastatin reduce intracellular and extracellular levels of Aβ42 and Aβ40 peptides in primary cultures of hippocampal neurons and mixed cortical neurons. Likewise, guinea pigs treated with high doses of simvastatin showed a strong and reversible reduction of cerebral Aβ42 and Aβ40 levels in the cerebrospinal fluid and brain homogenate. These results suggest that lipids are playing an important role in the development of Alzheimer's disease. Lowered levels of Aβ42 may provide the mechanism for the observed reduced incidence of dementia in statin-treated patients and may open up avenues for therapeutic interventions.

Rapidly induced auditory plasticity: The ventriloquism aftereffect

Cortical representational plasticity has been well documented after peripheral and central injuries or improvements in perceptual and motor abilities. This has led to inferences that the changes in cortical representations parallel and account for the improvement in performance during the period of skill acquisition. There have also been several examples of rapidly induced changes in cortical neuronal response properties, for example, by intracortical microstimulation or by classical conditioning paradigms. This report describes similar rapidly induced changes in a cortically mediated perception in human subjects, the ventriloquism aftereffect, which presumably reflects a corresponding change in the cortical representation of acoustic space. The ventriloquism aftereffect describes an enduring shift in the perception of the spatial location of acoustic stimuli after a period of exposure of spatially disparate and simultaneously presented acoustic and visual stimuli. Exposure of a mismatch of 8° for 20–30 min is sufficient to shift the perception of acoustic space by approximately the same amount across subjects and acoustic frequencies. Given that the cerebral cortex is necessary for the perception of acoustic space, it is likely that the ventriloquism aftereffect reflects a change in the cortical representation of acoustic space. Comparisons between the responses of single cortical neurons in the behaving macaque monkey and the stimulus parameters that give rise to the ventriloquism aftereffect suggest that the changes in the cortical representation of acoustic space may begin as early as the primary auditory cortex.

Suppression of trkB expression by antisense oligonucleotides alters a neuronal phenotype in the rod pathway of the developing rat retina.

trkB is the high-affinity receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a trophic molecule with demonstrated effects on the survival and differentiation of a wide variety of neuronal populations. In the mammalian retina, trkB is localized to both ganglion cells and numerous cells in the inner nuclear layer. Much information on the role of BDNF in neuronal development has been derived from the study of trkB- and BDNF-deficient mutant mice. This includes an attenuation of the numbers of cortical neurons immunopositive for the calcium-binding proteins, parvalbumin, and calbindin. Unfortunately, these mutant animals typically fail to survive for > 24-48 hr after birth. Since most retinal neuronal differentiation occurs postnatally, we have devised an alternative scheme to suppress the expression of trkB in the retina to examine the role of BDNF on the postnatal development of neurons of the inner retina. Neonatal rats were treated with intraocular injection of an antisense oligonucleotide (1-2 microliters of 10-100 microM solution) targeted to the trkB mRNA. Immunohistochemistry with a polyclonal antibody to trkB showed that the expression of trkB in retinal neurons was suppressed 48-72 hr following a single injection. Northern blot analysis demonstrated that antisense treatment had no effect on the level of trkB mRNA, even after multiple injections. This suggests an effect of trkB antisense treatment on protein translation, but not on RNA transcription. No alterations were observed in the thickness of retinal cellular or plexiform layers, suggesting that BDNF is not the sole survival factor for these neurons. There were, however, alterations in the patterns of immunostaining for parvalbumin, a marker for the narrow-field, bistratified AII amacrine cell-a central element of the rod (scotopic) pathway. This was evidenced by a decrease in both the number of immunostained somata (> 50%) and in the intensity of immunolabeling. However, the immunostaining pattern of calbindin was not affected. These studies suggest that the ligands for trkB have specific effects on the neurochemical phenotypic expression of inner retinal neurons and in the development of a well-defined retinal circuit.

Differential synaptic localization of two major gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor alpha subunits on hippocampal pyramidal cells.

Hippocampal pyramidal cells, receiving domain specific GABAergic inputs, express up to 10 different subunits of the gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptor, but only 3 different subunits are needed to form a functional pentameric channel. We have tested the hypothesis that some subunits are selectively located at subsets of GABAergic synapses. The alpha 1 subunit has been found in most GABAergic synapses on all postsynaptic domains of pyramidal cells. In contrast, the alpha 2 subunit was located only in a subset of synapses on the somata and dendrites, but in most synapses on axon initial segments innervated by axo-axonic cells. The results demonstrate that molecular specialization in the composition of postsynaptic GABAA receptor subunits parallels GABAergic cell specialization in targeting synapses to a specific domain of postsynaptic cortical neurons.

Lipid thioesters derived from acylated proteins accumulate in infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis: correction of the defect in lymphoblasts by recombinant palmitoyl-protein thioesterase.

Palmitoyl-protein thioesterase is a lysosomal long-chain fatty acyl hydrolase that removes fatty acyl groups from modified cysteine residues in proteins. Mutations in palmitoyl-protein thioesterase were recently found to cause the neurodegenerative disorder infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis, a disease characterized by accumulation of amorphous granular deposits in cortical neurons, leading to blindness, seizures, and brain death by the age of three. In the current study, we demonstrate that [35S]cysteine-labeled lipid thioesters accumulate in immortalized lymphoblasts of patients with infantile neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis. The accumulation in cultured cells is reversed by the addition of recombinant palmitoyl-protein thioesterase that is competent for lysosomal uptake through the mannose-6-phosphate receptor. The [35S]cysteine-labeled lipids are substrates for palmitoyl-protein thioesterase in vitro, and their formation requires prior protein synthesis. These data support a role for palmitoyl-protein thioesterase in the lysosomal degradation of S-acylated proteins and define a major new pathway for the catabolism of acylated proteins in the lysosome.

Intracortical and corticothalamic coherency of fast spontaneous oscillations.

We report that fast (mainly 30- to 40-Hz) coherent electric field oscillations appear spontaneously during brain activation, as expressed by electroencephalogram (EEG) rhythms, and they outlast the stimulation of mesopontine cholinergic nuclei in acutely prepared cats. The fast oscillations also appear during the sleep-like EEG patterns of ketamine/xylazine anesthesia, but they are selectively suppressed during the prolonged phase of the slow (<1-Hz) sleep oscillation that is associated with hyperpolarization of cortical neurons. The fast (30- to 40-Hz) rhythms are synchronized intracortically within vertical columns, among closely located cortical foci, and through reciprocal corticothalamic networks. The fast oscillations do not reverse throughout the depth of the cortex. This aspect stands in contrast with the conventional depth profile of evoked potentials and slow sleep oscillations that display opposite polarity at the surface and midlayers. Current-source-density analyses reveal that the fast oscillations are associated with alternating microsinks and microsources across the cortex, while the evoked potentials and the slow oscillation display a massive current sink in midlayers, confined by two sources in superficial and deep layers. The synchronization of fast rhythms and their high amplitudes indicate that the term "EEG desynchronization," used to designate brain-aroused states, is incorrect and should be replaced with the original term, "EEG activation" [Moruzzi, G. & Magoun, H.W. (1949) Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. 1, 455-473].

Intracerebral injection of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coat protein gp120 differentially affects the expression of nerve growth factor and nitric oxide synthase in the hippocampus of rat.

We have studied the neuropathological characteristics of the brain of rats receiving daily intracerebroventricular administration of freshly dissolved human immunodeficiency virus type 1 recombinant protein gp120 (100 ng per rat per day) given for up to 14 days. Histological examination of serial brain sections revealed no apparent gross damage to the cortex or hippocampus, nor did cell counting yield significant neuronal cell loss. However, the viral protein caused after 7 and 14 days of treatment DNA fragmentation in 10% of brain cortical neurons. Interestingly, reduced neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression along with significant increases in nerve growth factor (NGF) were observed in the hippocampus, where gp120 did not cause neuronal damage. No changes in NGF and NOS expression were seen in the cortex, where cell death is likely to be of the apoptotic type. The present data demonstrate that gp120-induced cortical cell death is associated with the lack of increase of NGF in the cerebral cortex and suggest that the latter may be important for the expression of neuropathology in the rat brain. By contrast, enhanced levels of NGF may prevent or delay neuronal death in the hippocampus, where reduced NOS expression may be a reflection of a subcellular insult inflicted by the viral protein.

Discovery of adrenomedullin in rat ischemic cortex and evidence for its role in exacerbating focal brain ischemic damage.

Focal brain ischemia is the most common event leading to stroke in humans. To understand the molecular mechanisms associated with brain ischemia, we applied the technique of mRNA differential display and isolated a gene that encodes a recently discovered peptide, adrenomedullin (AM), which is a member of the calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) family. Using the rat focal stroke model of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO), we determined that AM mRNA expression was significantly increased in the ischemic cortex up to 17.4-fold at 3 h post-MCAO (P < 0.05) and 21.7-fold at 6 h post-MCAO (P < 0.05) and remained elevated for up to 15 days (9.6-fold increase; P < 0.05). Immunohistochemical studies localized AM to ischemic neuronal processes, and radioligand (125I-labeled CGRP) displacement revealed high-affinity (IC50 = 80.3 nmol) binding of AM to CGRP receptors in brain cortex. The cerebrovascular function of AM was studied using synthetic AM microinjected onto rat pial vessels using a cranial window or applied to canine basilar arteries in vitro. AM, applied abluminally, produced dose-dependent relaxation of preconstricted pial vessels (P < 0.05). Intracerebroventricular (but not systemic) AM administration at a high dose (8 nmol), prior to and after MCAO, increased the degree of focal ischemic injury (P < 0.05). The ischemia-induced expression of both AM mRNA and peptide in ischemic cortical neurons, the demonstration of the direct vasodilating effects of the peptide on cerebral vessels, and the ability of AM to exacerbate ischemic brain damage suggests that AM plays a significant role in focal ischemic brain injury.

Bok Is Not Pro-Apoptotic But Suppresses Poly ADP-Ribose Polymerase-Dependent Cell Death Pathways and Protects against Excitotoxic and Seizure-Induced Neuronal Injury.

UNLABELLED Bok (Bcl-2-related ovarian killer) is a Bcl-2 family member that, because of its predicted structural homology to Bax and Bak, has been proposed to be a pro-apoptotic protein. In this study, we demonstrate that Bok is highly expressed in neurons of the mouse brain but thatbokwas not required for staurosporine-, proteasome inhibition-, or excitotoxicity-induced apoptosis of cultured cortical neurons. On the contrary, we found thatbok-deficient neurons were more sensitive to oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced injuryin vitroand seizure-induced neuronal injuryin vivo Deletion ofbokalso increased staurosporine-, excitotoxicity-, and oxygen/glucose deprivation-induced cell death inbax-deficient neurons. Single-cell imaging demonstrated thatbok-deficient neurons failed to maintain their neuronal Ca(2+)homeostasis in response to an excitotoxic stimulus; this was accompanied by a prolonged deregulation of mitochondrial bioenergetics.bokdeficiency led to a specific reduction in neuronal Mcl-1 protein levels, and deregulation of both mitochondrial bioenergetics and Ca(2+)homeostasis was rescued by Mcl-1 overexpression. Detailed analysis of cell death pathways demonstrated the activation of poly ADP-ribose polymerase-dependent cell death inbok-deficient neurons. Collectively, our data demonstrate that Bok acts as a neuroprotective factor rather than a pro-death effector during Ca(2+)- and seizure-induced neuronal injuryin vitroandin vivo SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Bcl-2 proteins are essential regulators of the mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The Bcl-2 protein Bok is highly expressed in the CNS. Because of its sequence similarity to Bax and Bak, Bok has long been considered part of the pro-apoptotic Bax-like subfamily, but no studies have yet been performed in neurons to test this hypothesis. Our study provides important new insights into the functional role of Bok during neuronal apoptosis and specifically in the setting of Ca(2+)- and seizure-mediated neuronal injury. We show that Bok controls neuronal Ca(2+)homeostasis and bioenergetics and, contrary to previous assumptions, exerts neuroprotective activitiesin vitroandin vivo Our results demonstrate that Bok cannot be placed unambiguously into the Bax-like Bcl-2 subfamily of pro-apoptotic proteins.

Chronic smoking and alcoholism change expression of selective genes in the human prefrontal cortex

Background: Alcoholism is commonly associated with chronic smoking. A number of gene expression profiles of regions within the human mesocorticolimbic system have identified potential alcohol-sensitive genes; however, the influence of smoking on these changes was not taken into account. This study addressed the impact of alcohol and smoking on the expression of 4 genes, previously identified as alcoholism-sensitive. in the human prefrontal cortex (PFC). Methods: mRNA expression of apolipoprotein D, tissue inhibitor of the metalloproteinase 3, high-affinity glial glutamate transporter and midkine, was measured in the PFC of alcoholic Subjects and controls with and without smoking comorbidity using real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results: The results show that alcohol affects transcription of some of these genes. Additionally, smoking has a marked influence on gene expression. Conclusion: This study emphasizes the need for careful case selection in future gene expression studies to delineate the adaptive molecular process associated with smoking and alcohol.

Deconvolution of magnetic acoustic change complex (mACC)

Objective: The aim of this study was to design a novel experimental approach to investigate the morphological characteristics of auditory cortical responses elicited by rapidly changing synthesized speech sounds. Methods: Six sound-evoked magnetoencephalographic (MEG) responses were measured to a synthesized train of speech sounds using the vowels /e/ and /u/ in 17 normal hearing young adults. Responses were measured to: (i) the onset of the speech train, (ii) an F0 increment; (iii) an F0 decrement; (iv) an F2 decrement; (v) an F2 increment; and (vi) the offset of the speech train using short (jittered around 135. ms) and long (1500. ms) stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs). The least squares (LS) deconvolution technique was used to disentangle the overlapping MEG responses in the short SOA condition only. Results: Comparison between the morphology of the recovered cortical responses in the short and long SOAs conditions showed high similarity, suggesting that the LS deconvolution technique was successful in disentangling the MEG waveforms. Waveform latencies and amplitudes were different for the two SOAs conditions and were influenced by the spectro-temporal properties of the sound sequence. The magnetic acoustic change complex (mACC) for the short SOA condition showed significantly lower amplitudes and shorter latencies compared to the long SOA condition. The F0 transition showed a larger reduction in amplitude from long to short SOA compared to the F2 transition. Lateralization of the cortical responses were observed under some stimulus conditions and appeared to be associated with the spectro-temporal properties of the acoustic stimulus. Conclusions: The LS deconvolution technique provides a new tool to study the properties of the auditory cortical response to rapidly changing sound stimuli. The presence of the cortical auditory evoked responses for rapid transition of synthesized speech stimuli suggests that the temporal code is preserved at the level of the auditory cortex. Further, the reduced amplitudes and shorter latencies might reflect intrinsic properties of the cortical neurons to rapidly presented sounds. Significance: This is the first demonstration of the separation of overlapping cortical responses to rapidly changing speech sounds and offers a potential new biomarker of discrimination of rapid transition of sound.

Rôle des récepteurs aux protéines G (GPR55, GPR91 et GPR99) dans la croissance et le guidage axonal au cours du développement du système visuel

Lors de l’attribution du prix Nobel de chimie aux docteurs Robert Leftkowitz et Brian Kobika pour leurs travaux essentiels sur les récepteurs couplés à des protéines G (RCPGs), Sven Lindin, membre du comité Nobel, a affirmé que « jusqu'à la moitié » des médicaments « reposent sur une action ciblant les RCPG ». En raison de leurs rôles importants, leurs mécanismes d'activation et l’action de leurs ligands, les RCPG demeurent les cibles potentielles de la majorité des recherches pour le développement de nouveaux médicaments et de leurs applications cliniques. Dans cette optique, nous avons concentré nos recherches à travers cette thèse pour élucider les rôles, les mécanismes d’action et les effets des ligands de trois RCPG : GPR55; GPR91 et GPR99 au cours du développement des axones des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGRs). Les résultats de nos études confirment l’expression des récepteurs lors du développement embryonnaire, postnatal et adulte des CGRs ainsi qu’au cours de l’établissement de la voie rétinothalamique. In vitro, la modulation pharmacologique et génétique de l’activité de ces RCPGs réorganise la morphologie du cône de croissance des CGRs, celle des neurones corticaux et elle modifie la croissance axonale globale. De plus, les effets de la stimulation avec des ligands des ces trois RCPGs sur le guidage axonal varient d’aucun effet (GPR91 et GPR99) à la répulsion ou l’attraction (GPR55). La voie de signalisation MAPK-ERK1/2 joue un rôle essentiel dans la médiation des effets des ligands de ces récepteurs avec une implication de la voie de RhoA à hautes concentrations pour l’agoniste endogène de GPR55. In vivo, cette recherche démontre également l’implication de GPR55 dans les processus de sélection des cibles thalamiques et de raffinement au cours du développement du système nerveux visuel.

Rôle des récepteurs aux protéines G (GPR55, GPR91 et GPR99) dans la croissance et le guidage axonal au cours du développement du système visuel.

Lors de l’attribution du prix Nobel de chimie aux docteurs Robert Leftkowitz et Brian Kobika pour leurs travaux essentiels sur les récepteurs couplés à des protéines G (RCPGs), Sven Lindin, membre du comité Nobel, a affirmé que « jusqu'à la moitié » des médicaments « reposent sur une action ciblant les RCPG ». En raison de leurs rôles importants, leurs mécanismes d'activation et l’action de leurs ligands, les RCPG demeurent les cibles potentielles de la majorité des recherches pour le développement de nouveaux médicaments et de leurs applications cliniques. Dans cette optique, nous avons concentré nos recherches à travers cette thèse pour élucider les rôles, les mécanismes d’action et les effets des ligands de trois RCPG : GPR55; GPR91 et GPR99 au cours du développement des axones des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGRs). Les résultats de nos études confirment l’expression des récepteurs lors du développement embryonnaire, postnatal et adulte des CGRs ainsi qu’au cours de l’établissement de la voie rétinothalamique. In vitro, la modulation pharmacologique et génétique de l’activité de ces RCPGs réorganise la morphologie du cône de croissance des CGRs, celle des neurones corticaux et elle modifie la croissance axonale globale. De plus, les effets de la stimulation avec des ligands des ces trois RCPGs sur le guidage axonal varient d’aucun effet (GPR91 et GPR99) à la répulsion ou l’attraction (GPR55). La voie de signalisation MAPK-ERK1/2 joue un rôle essentiel dans la médiation des effets des ligands de ces récepteurs avec une implication de la voie de RhoA à hautes concentrations pour l’agoniste endogène de GPR55. In vivo, cette recherche démontre également l’implication de GPR55 dans les processus de sélection des cibles thalamiques et de raffinement au cours du développement du système nerveux visuel.

Rôle de DSCAM dans le développement normal du cortex moteur et de la voie corticospinale

DSCAM est exprimé dans le cortex lors du développement et sa mutation altère l’arborisation dendritique des neurones pyramidaux du cortex moteur. Considérant que les souris DSCAM2J possèdent des problèmes posturaux et locomoteurs, nous émettons l’hypothèse que DSCAM est impliqué dans le fonctionnement normal du cortex moteur et de la voie corticospinale. Comparées aux souris contrôles, les souris DSCAM2J vont présenter des problèmes moteurs à basse vitesse et enjamber un obstacle presque normalement à vitesse intermédiaire. Le traçage antérograde de la voie corticospinale révèle un patron d’innervation normal dans le tronc cérébrale et la moelle épinière. Des microstimulations intracorticale du cortex moteur évoque des réponses électromyographiques dans les membres à un seuil et une latence plus élevé. Par contre, une stimulation de la voie corticospinale dans la médulla évoque des réponses électromyographies à un seuil et une latence similaire entre les deux groupes, suggérant une réduction de l’excitabilité du cortex moteur.