Study of thiabendazole resistance and volatile organic compounds production of Penicillium expansum strains

The years of excessive use of thiabendazole to control Penicillium expansum has induced the development of resistance. Sensitivity of fourty eight strains collected from orchards and packinghouses in Emilia Romagna to pure and commercial TBZ was determined in vitro on TBZ amended medium (400μg/mL). Out of 48 strains, 35 were thiabendazole-sensitive (S) and 13 were thiabendazole-resistant (R). Microtiter assay adapted to P. expansum, showed EC50 values ranging from 54 to 320 μg/mL for ten TBZ-resistant strains. At the highest dose (50 μg/mL), resistant strains growth was not inhibited and the reported MICs value were >1000 μg/mL. Therefore, preliminary screening combined with microtiter assay, can be a good strategy to test susceptibility to TBZ. Mutations in the β-tubulin gene were studied on amino acid sequences from residue 167 to residue 357 of 10 P. expansum strains. Mutation at codon 198 was associated with TBZ-resistance. However, its absence in 3 resistant strains can be explained by the involvement of other mechanisms. Moreover, a P. expansum strain LB8/99 showed good antifungal effect against some fungal pathogens through double petri dish assay. It inhibited both mycelium growth and conidia germination of B. cinerea, C. acutatum, and M. laxa, and reduced significantly by 53% and 18% respectively P. expansum. Three major VOCS: geosmin, phenethyl alcolhol (PEA) and an unknown substance were identified by GC-MS analysis. Consistent fumigation of fungal pathogens with PEA (1230 mg/mL), inhibited both conidia germination and mycelium growth of all pathogens, except conidia germination of P. expansum that was reduced by 90% with respect to control. While, the concentration of PEA produced naturally by LB8/99 was ineffective in controlling the pathogens and seemed to have a synergic or additive effect with the other VOCS. Investigations to study the biofumigant effect of LB8/99 on other commodities like seeds and seedlings are in progress.

Nuove biotenologie per la produzione di piante micorrizate con tartufo

Il lavoro svolto durante questa tesi di dottorato pone le basi per lo sviluppo di nuove biotecnologie della micorrizazione di piante forestali con tartufi pregiati ed in particolare con Tuber magnatum. Durante questa tesi è stato possibile isolare e mantenere in coltura pura il micelio di T. magnatum, ad ottenere e descrivere le sue micorrize e quelle di altri tartufi “bianchi” (T. oligospermum, T. borchii) e a seguire l’evoluzione del micelio nel suolo utilizzando la tecnica della real time PCR. Sono stati disegnati primer specie specifici in grado di identificare T. oligospermum ed è stata verificata la possibiltà di utilizzare questi primers in PCR multiplex con quelli specifici di T. magnatum e di T. borchii già presenti in bibliografia, al fine di “scovare” sia frodi nella commercializzaione degli ascomi sia eventuali contaminazioni nelle piante micorrizate. Per migliorare lo sviluppo miceliare di tartufo abbiamo si è cercato di migliorare il mezzo nutritivo per la crescita del micelio utilizzando: fonti di carbonio diverse, estratti radicali di nocciolo e singole frazioni separate dagli stessi. Infine sono stati sviluppati protocolli di crioconservazione per miceli di tartufo. Gli estratti radicali sono in grado di stimolare le crescita miceliare del tartufo modello T. borchii e dimodificarne la morfologia ifale. Questo risultati sono stati confermati anche dall’aumento dell’espressione di geni CDC42 e Rho-GDI, due geni legati alla crescita apicale polarizzata delle ife dei funghi filamentosi. Inoltre è stato dimostrato che il mantenimento in coltura per numerosi anni dei miceli di tartufo provoca una perdita della capacità d’infettare le radici delle piante e quindi il loro potenziale utilizzo sia a scopo sperimentale sia a scopo colturale. Questo pone in risalto l’importanza della conservazione a lungo termine del materiale biologico a disposizione ed è stato dimostrato che la crioconservazione è applicabile con successo anche alle specie del genere Tuber.

Are ectomycorrhizal fungi alleviating or aggravating nitrogen limitation of tree growth in boreal forests?

•Symbioses between plant roots and mycorrhizal fungi are thought to enhance plant uptake of nutrients through a favourable exchange for photosynthates. Ectomycorrhizal fungi are considered to play this vital role for trees in nitrogen (N)-limited boreal forests. •We followed symbiotic carbon (C)–N exchange in a large-scale boreal pine forest experiment by tracing 13CO2 absorbed through tree photosynthesis and 15N injected into a soil layer in which ectomycorrhizal fungi dominate the microbial community. •We detected little 15N in tree canopies, but high levels in soil microbes and in mycorrhizal root tips, illustrating effective soil N immobilization, especially in late summer, when tree belowground C allocation was high. Additions of N fertilizer to the soil before labelling shifted the incorporation of 15N from soil microbes and root tips to tree foliage. •These results were tested in a model for C–N exchange between trees and mycorrhizal fungi, suggesting that ectomycorrhizal fungi transfer small fractions of absorbed N to trees under N-limited conditions, but larger fractions if more N is available. We suggest that greater allocation of C from trees to ectomycorrhizal fungi increases N retention in soil mycelium, driving boreal forests towards more severe N limitation at low N supply.

Oidiopsis taurica : nuevo patógeno de pimiento (Capsicum annum L.) y ají (Capsicum frutescens L.) en Mendoza (Argentina)

En febrero de 1998 se observó en cultivos de pimiento y ají de Mendoza (Argentina) muerte anticipada de plantas con severos daños en la producción. La magnitud del problema motivó una prospección en los principales oasis de la provincia, a fin de describir la sintomatología, conocer su dispersión, estimar los daños causados y recolectar material para realizar estudios en laboratorio tendientes a confirmar su etiología. Se constató que la afección se encontraba distribuida en todos los oasis del centro y norte. La sintomatología en hojas se caracterizó por la presencia en la cara adaxial de manchas amarillentas, de forma circular de 15 a 20 mm de diámetro, con puntuaciones necróticas, con tendencia a presentarse en anillos concéntricos. En la cara abaxial, generalmente las lesiones eran acompañadas de un micelio blanco tenue. Posteriormente siguió una severa defoliación. La producción disminuyó notablemente y además en pimiento los frutos fueron afectados por escaldaduras de sol y perdieron su valor comercial. A partir de aislamientos de pimiento y ají, mantenidos en plantas de brincos (Impatiens balsamina L.), se inocularon plantas sanas y se logró reproducir la enfermedad en condiciones de invernáculo.

Effect of compost and slow-release fertilizers addition on soil biochemistry and yield of maize (Zea mays L.) in Oaxaca, Mexico

The effect of Bokashi (B, a fermented compost), slow-release fertilizers (SRFs) and their combined application on mycorrhizal colonization (MC), soil invertase, cellulase, acid (AcP) and alkaline (AlP) phosphatases activities and maize (Zea mays L.) yield was investigated in terrace (TS) and valley (VS) soils in Oaxaca, Mexico. A complete randomized design, seven fertilizer treatments and four replications were used: unamended control (C); conventional fertilization (90-46-00 NPK) (CF); B; SRF1 (Multigro 6®, 21-14-10 NPK); SRF2 (Multigro 3®, 24-05-14 NPK); B+SRF1; B+SRF2. Highest root colonization percentage: CF in VS, and SRF2 in TS. Highest extraradical mycelium length: B, B+SRF1, CF in VS, and B+SRF1 in TS. In both soils, B increased the spore number. Highest AcP activity: B, SRF2 in VS, and B+SRF1, B+SRF2 in TS. Highest AlP activity: B+SRF1, CF in VS, and C in TS. Highest invertase activity: B+SRF1, SRF2, CF in VS, and B in TS. Grain yield only increased with B in VS. The significant interaction soil type × fertilizer treatment for the majority of the biological soil properties analyzed suggests that MC and soil enzyme activity response to fertilization was influenced by soil type. Bokashi, alone or combined with SRFs improves biological soil fertility in maize fields.

Palynological and geochemical data of sediment core GeoB3910-2 located offshore Northeast Brazil

High resolution palynological and geochemical data of sediment core GeoB 3910-2 (located offshore Northeast Brazil) spanning the period between 19 600 and 14 500 calibrated year bp (19.6-14.5 ka) show a land-cover change in the catchment area of local rivers in two steps related to changes in precipitation associated with Heinrich Event 1 (H1 stadial). At the end of the last glacial maximum, the landscape in semi-arid Northeast Brazil was dominated by a very dry type of caatinga vegetation, mainly composed of grasslands with some herbs and shrubs. After 18 ka, considerably more humid conditions are suggested by changes in the vegetation and by Corg and C/N data indicative of fluvial erosion. The caatinga became wetter and along lakes and rivers, sedges and gallery forest expanded. The most humid period was recorded between 16.5 and 15 ka, when humid gallery (and floodplain) forest and even small patches of mountainous Atlantic rain forest occurred together with dry forest, the latter being considered as a rather lush type of caatinga vegetation. During this humid phase erosion decreased as less lithogenic material and more organic terrestrial material were deposited on the continental slope of northern Brazil. After 15 ka arid conditions returned. During the humid second phase of the H1 stadial, a rich variety of landscapes existed in Northeast Brazil and during the drier periods small pockets of forest could probably survive in favorable spots, which would have increased the resilience of the forest to climate change.

The protein product of the het-s heterokaryon incompatibility gene of the fungus Podospora anserina behaves as a prion analog

The het-s locus of Podospora anserina is a heterokaryon incompatibility locus. The coexpression of the antagonistic het-s and het-S alleles triggers a lethal reaction that prevents the formation of viable heterokaryons. Strains that contain the het-s allele can display two different phenotypes, [Het-s] or [Het-s*], according to their reactivity in incompatibility. The detection in these phenotypically distinct strains of a protein expressed from the het-s gene indicates that the difference in reactivity depends on a posttranslational difference between two forms of the polypeptide encoded by the het-s gene. This posttranslational modification does not affect the electrophoretic mobility of the protein in SDS/PAGE. Several results suggest a similarity of behavior between the protein encoded by the het-s gene and prions. The [Het-s] character can propagate in [Het-s*] strains as an infectious agent, producing a [Het-s*] → [Het-s] transition, independently of protein synthesis. Expression of the [Het-s] character requires a functional het-s gene. The protein present in [Het-s] strains is more resistant to proteinase K than that present in [Het-s*] mycelium. Furthermore, overexpression of the het-s gene increases the frequency of the transition from [Het-s*] to [Het-s]. We propose that this transition is the consequence of a self-propagating conformational modification of the protein mediated by the formation of complexes between the two different forms of the polypeptide.

Carbohydrate and Amino Acid Metabolism in the Eucalyptus globulus-Pisolithus tinctorius Ectomycorrhiza during Glucose Utilization1

The metabolism of [1-13C]glucose in Pisolithus tinctorius cv Coker & Couch, in uninoculated seedlings of Eucalyptus globulus bicostata ex Maiden cv Kirkp., and in the E. globulus-P. tinctorius ectomycorrhiza was studied using nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In roots of uninoculated seedlings, the 13C label was mainly incorporated into sucrose and glutamine. The ratio (13C3 + 13C2)/13C4 of glutamine was approximately 1.0 during the time-course experiment, indicating equivalent contributions of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and pyruvate dehydrogenase to the production of α-ketoglutarate used for synthesis of this amino acid. In free-living P. tinctorius, most of the 13C label was incorporated into mannitol, trehalose, glutamine, and alanine, whereas arabitol, erythritol, and glutamate were weakly labeled. Amino acid biosynthesis was an important sink of assimilated 13C (43%), and anaplerotic CO2 fixation contributed 42% of the C flux entering the Krebs cycle. In ectomycorrhizae, sucrose accumulation was decreased in the colonized roots compared with uninoculated control plants, whereas 13C incorporation into arabitol and erythritol was nearly 4-fold higher in the symbiotic mycelium than in the free-living fungus. It appears that fungal utilization of glucose in the symbiotic state is altered and oriented toward the synthesis of short-chain polyols.

Characterization and localization of the cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain in Aspergillus nidulans.

Migration of nuclei throughout the mycelium is essential for the growth and differentiation of filamentous fungi. In Aspergillus nidulans, the nudA gene, which is involved in nuclear migration, encodes a cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain. In this paper we use antibodies to characterize the Aspergillus cytoplasmic dynein heavy chain (ACDHC) and to show that the ACDHC is concentrated at the growing tip of the fungal mycelium. We demonstrate that four temperature-sensitive mutations in the nudA gene result in a striking decrease in ACDHC protein. Cytoplasmic dynein has been implicated in nuclear division in animal cells. Because the temperature-sensitive nudA mutants are able to grow slowly with occasional nuclei found in the mycelium and are able to undergo nuclear division, we have created a deletion/disruption nudA mutation and a tightly downregulated nudA mutation. These mutants exhibit a phenotype very similar to that of the temperature-sensitive nudA mutants with respect to growth, nuclear distribution, and nuclear division. This suggests that there are redundant backup motor proteins for both nuclear migration and nuclear division.

Imobilização do fungo Penicillium citrinum CBMAI 1186 e lipase de Pseudomonas fluorescens em biopolímeros para aplicações em biocatálise

Diversos biomateriais podem ser aplicados como suportes na imobilização de células totais de fungos filamentosos ou enzimas isoladas, visando a manutenção e o prolongamento da atividade enzimática em processos biocatalíticos. Exemplos promissores de biomateriais são a fibroína da seda e o alginato de sódio. A fibroína é um material protéico com alta estabilidade térmica, elasticidade, resistência à tensão, não sofre ataque microbiano, baixo custo de purificação e alta tenacidade, o alginato é um biopolímero versátil, devido a suas propriedades gelificantes em soluções aquosas. Assim, neste trabalho empregou-se micélios do fungo derivado de ambiente marinho, Penicillium citrinum CBMAI 1186, livres e imobilizados em biopolímeros (fibra de algodão, fibra de fibroína da seda e fibra de paina) na biorredução quimiosseletiva, regiosseletiva e enantiosseletiva da ligação α,β-C=C de enonas α,β-, α,β,γ,δ- e di-α,β-insaturadas previamente sintetizados pela a reação de condensação aldólica. Foi possível a utilização do fungo P. citrinum CBMAI 1186 na redução quimiosseletiva, regiosseletiva e enantiosseletiva da ligação dupla carbono-carbono de sistemas α,β-insaturados. A imobilização do fungo P. citrinum CBMAI 1186 em biopolímeros (algodão, fibroína da seda, paina e quitosana) permitiu a prolongamento da atividade celular do fungo. O protocolo desenvolvido foi capaz de obter compostos até então descritos apenas por síntese clássica. Também foi realizado reações de resolução enzimática de derivados de haloidrinas por diferentes lipases microbianas de: Pseudomonas fluorescens, Candida cylindracea, Rhizopus niveus e Aspergillus niger. A lipase de P. fluorescens foi imobilizada em esferas de fibroína do bicho da seda (método 1, via adsorção) e em blenda com alginato de cálcio (método 2, via encapsulação) em diferentes condições, tais como, variação de solvente, variação da quantidade de enzima imobilizada e tempo de reação. As condições otimizadas foram empregadas em diferentes haloidrinas, rendendo elevados excessos enantioméricos (ee > 99%) e alta razão enanantiomérica (E > 200) para os produtos acetilados. Foi possível desenvolver um protocolo simples, barato e prático para a síntese enantiosseletiva de haloidrina reforçando a versatilidade da fibroína e do alginato como suportes de imobilização para catalisadores heterogêneos. Também foi possível utilizar a lipase imobilizada (método 2) na reação de transesterificação para obtenção do biodiesel etílico. As melhores condições para o bom funcionamento do biocatalisador foram: 30% do biocatalisador, 20% de n-hexano, relação óleo e etanol de 1:4 a 32 ºC por 48 h em agitação magnética (400 rpm). Essas condições permitiram a formação de 42% de rendimento do biodiesel etílico. O biocatalisador apresentou algumas limitações reacionais, tais como, fragilidade frente a elevadas temperaturas (> 32 ºC) e prolongado tempo de agitação magnética. Porém, permaneceu apto no meio por 4 ciclos consecutivas. Conclui-se que os biomateriais (fibroína, alginato e quitosana) podem ser utilizados como alternativas versáteis na imobilização de micélios de fungos filamentoso e de enzimas isoladas para aplicações em biocatalíticas.

Atividade da própolis verde contra o fitopatógeno Pythium aphanidermatum e análise da interação do composto majoritário Artepillin C com sistemas biomiméticos de membranas

O aumento da resistência microbiana devido a fatores como uso excessivo e ineficiente de antibióticos convencionais acarreta a necessidade da busca por novos compostos bioativos que atuem por mecanismos de ação diferentes aos fármacos já conhecidos. Na agricultura, o uso intensivo de pesticidas para o combate de microrganismos que comprometem principalmente a parte alimentícia também traz diversos problemas relacionados à resistência antimicrobiana e a riscos ambientais, oriundos do acúmulo dessas substâncias no solo. Dentro deste aspecto, o pseudofungo Pythium aphanidermatum, da classe dos oomicetos, destaca-se por ser uma espécie agressiva e altamente resistente a fungicidas comuns, apodrecendo raízes e frutos de cultivos de tomate, beterraba, pepino, pimentão, etc. A própolis verde, constituída em sua grande parte por material resinoso coletado e processado pela abelha da espécie Apis mellifera tem sido utilizada na medicina tradicional devido ao seu amplo espectro de ações preventivas e tratamentos de doenças, possuindo propriedades anti-inflamatórias, antimicrobianas, anticancerígenas e antioxidantes, tornando-se um produto de grande interesse na busca de novos compostos bioativos. Dentro destes aspectos apresentados, neste trabalho investigamos a ação da própolis verde contra o fitopatógeno P. aphanidermatum e identificamos através da técnica de cromatografia e bioensaios que a Artepillin C (3,5-diprenil-4-ácido-hidroxicinâmico), majoritária na própolis verde, foi o principal composto nesta ação. Os efeitos terapêuticos desta molécula tem sido foco de muitos estudos, porém ainda não há evidência em sua interação com agregados anfifílicos que mimetizam membranas celulares. O caráter anfifílico do composto, elevado pela presença dos grupos prenilados ligados ao ácido cinâmico, favoreceram a sua inserção nas membranas modelo, principalmente em seu estado agregado. Estas conclusões puderam ser inferidas devido às alterações nas propriedades das bicamadas lipídicas na presença da Artepillin C, podendo causar, especificamente para o caso de fitopatógenos como o P. aphanidermatum, perdas funcionais das proteínas de membranas, liberação de eletrólitos intracelulares e desintegração citoplasmática dos micélios e esporos. Ainda, as diferentes composições lipídicas nas vesículas influenciam no modo de interação do composto e consequentes alterações em suas estruturas, principalmente na presença do colesterol, que auxilia na manutenção da permeabilidade da bicamada lipídica, que pode contribuir para a integridade do conteúdo citoplasmático da célula.

The casing layer in the culture of Agaricus bisporus, the cultivated mushroom

The casing layer is an essential component of the system employed in the culture of Agaricus bisporus. The literature appropriate to the casing layer is fully reviewed, including aspects relating to fructification and morphogenesis in A.bisporus, together with an appraisal of the various media employed, their properties and functions, and the commercial significance of the casing layer. Equipment is described for use in experiments in mushroom culture, based on a scaled-down version of normal growing technique, allowing the analysis of both weights and number of fruitbodies forming, which was useful in assessing the effects of different casing treatments. The basic steps in the production of fruitbodies in A.bisporus.are described, including a photographic study of the colonisation of casing and fructification. Various alterations to the physical structure of peat/chalk casing mixtures were found to have an effect on fructification; those causing an opening-out of the casing structure tended to give better yields, especially in the early stages of production. It was shown that, in order to obtain greater yield through casing amendment, fructification must be stimulated, giving increased numbers of fruitbodies, disproportionate to their total weight and consequently of lower mean weight. A synthetic casing medium based on the light glass-like mineral, perlite, was developed. The best formula obtained was -.1 part perlite: 1 part montmorillonite clay (by weight): 3 parts 0.01% glucose solution. Perlite/montmorillonite casing could be improved by adding compost colonised by mycelium of A.bisporus, or adding a peat-chalk casing extract. Perlite was also found to be suitable for admixture with the standard casing medium and a mixture of equal parts by volume performed as well as the peat/chalk casing normally used.

Studies on the composition and nutritional value of the cultivated mushroom, agaricus bisporus (Lange) Sing

The effects of various cultural conditions on the composition and nutritional quality of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Sing. were investigated. Variation in composition was found between different classes of sample. Sampling techniques were standardised to allow for major variations in the different developmental stages and culture ages. Fruitbodies were found to be of low calorific value but contained protein of high digestibility and quality, containing all the essential amino acids required by man. Quantitative estimates of the sulphur-containing amino acids indicated that fruitbodies were deficient in methionine and cysteine. The extent of water application and the supplementation of conventional substrates with various nitrogen-containing substances, influenced yield and composition, establishing the importance of these two factors in the physiology of fruitbodies and cultural management. Storage conditions influenced composition, high temperatures being deleterious to the nutritional value of fruitbodies. Submerged culture techniques were used to investigate the effects of various nutrients on growth and composition of mushroom mycelium, with special reference to the sulphur-containing amino acids. Yield and composition were greatly affected by the carbon:nitrogen ratio of the medium and by the nitrogen source. Significant increases in mycelial methionine content were observed on the addition of inorganic sulphate, the methionine derivative N-acetyl-L-methionine, and L-methionine. A greater increase in methionine content was obtained when the biomass of a thermophilic bacterium isolated from compost was used as a nitrogen source.

Iron in the substrates and sporophores of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Pilat during growth and development

The changes of the concentration of iron in the growth substrates and the sporophores of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Pilat that occurred during culture under standard commercial conditions, were observed using atomic absorption spectrophotometry and iron-59 radiotracing techniques. The routes of translocation and sites of iron accumulation within the sporophore were shovn to alter during development and by the use of novel, pelletised substrates the concentration of iron in the mycelium of the substrates and in developing sporophores was observed during culture. Findings indicated that the compost was the major source of iron and that the concentration of iron in the compost mycelium varied cyclically in relation to the periodic appearance of sporophores. In the casing layer the mycelium is organised into strands which are responsible for the movement of iron from the compost into developing sporophores. A photographic technique for estimating sporophore growth rates showed that the accumulation of iron was not concomitant with sporophore growth and this was attributable to a declining quantity of available iron in the compost mycelium during sporophore growth. Variations in the quantity of iron in sporophores resulted primarily from differences in the quantity of water soluble iron in the compost but, the productivity of the crop, the type of casing layer and differences in watering also influenced sporophore composition. Changes in the concentration of extractable iron in the compost and casing layer throughout culture were related to mycelial activity and to a lesser extent were influenced by watering and the bacterial populations of the casing layer. Thus, the findings of this study give some indication of the relative importance that different cultural conditions exert over sporophore composition together with demonstrations of the movement of a single material within the sporophores and substrates during the cultivation of Agaricus bisporus.

The ecology of paper mill by-product and its evaluation as a casing medium in the culture of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Pilat

Effluent from pulp and paper production at the Kemsley mill of Bowaters U.K. Paper Company Limited passes through two treatment stages before its discharge into the Swale estuary. Suspended material removed during treatment is deposited on wasteground as a thin sludge. The solids it contains are mainly wood components lost during pulp production, whilst it also has a high salt content, derived from chemicals used in pulping processes. After deposition the sludge undergoes an ageing process during which it dries out and its salt content is reduced. This ageing can be reproduced and accelerated by improved drainage under controlled conditions. The paper mill sludge was investigated as a casing medium in the culture of Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Pilat, the cultivated mushroom. It was unsuitable up to one year from deposition due largely to the inhibitory effect of its salt content on fruiting. Material eighteen months or more in age gave yields comparable to standard peat casing. Before use as a casing the material must be shredded to a satisfactory structure, neutralised with chalk, and pasteurised to eliminate organisms harmful to the crop. The prepared medium has a high water holding capacity and a structure resilient to management procedures, important requirements of a good casing. A passive movement of salts from the compost to the casing was shown to occur during culture, capable of enhancing the natural decline in cropping if sufficiently great. The ions chloride, potassium, sodium and sulphate were shown to be responsible, their damaging effects being due to high conductivity created in the casing. Studies of elements available during culture suggested phosphate availability in the compost could limit crop potential, whilst iron released by mycelium of A.bisporus in the casing may be utilised by associated micro-organisms.