Stepwise in vitro affinity maturation of Vitaxin, an αvβ3-specific humanized mAb

A protein engineering strategy based on efficient and focused mutagenesis implemented by codon-based mutagenesis was developed. Vitaxin, a humanized version of the antiangiogenic antibody LM609 directed against a conformational epitope of the αvβ3 integrin complex, was used as a model system. Specifically, focused mutagenesis was used in a stepwise fashion to rapidly improve the affinity of the antigen binding fragment by greater than 90-fold. In the complete absence of structural information about the Vitaxin-αvβ3 interaction, phage-expressed antibody libraries for all six Ig heavy and light chain complementarity-determining regions were expressed and screened by a quantitative assay to identify variants with improved binding to αvβ3. The Vitaxin variants in these libraries each contained a single mutation, and all 20 amino acids were introduced at each complementarity-determining region residue, resulting in the expression of 2,336 unique clones. Multiple clones displaying 2- to 13-fold improved affinity were identified. Subsequent expression and screening of a library of 256 combinatorial variants of the optimal mutations identified from the primary libraries resulted in the identification of multiple clones displaying greater than 50-fold enhanced affinity. These variants inhibited ligand binding to receptor more potently as demonstrated by inhibition of cell adhesion and ligand competition assays. Because of the limited mutagenesis and combinatorial approach, Vitaxin variants with enhanced affinity were identified rapidly and required the synthesis of only 2,592 unique variants. The use of such small focused libraries obviates the need for phage affinity selection approaches typically used, permitting the use of functional assays and the engineering of proteins expressed in mammalian cell culture.

Homologs of the Xenopus developmental gene DG42 are present in zebrafish and mouse and are involved in the synthesis of Nod-like chitin oligosaccharides during early embryogenesis.

The Xenopus developmental gene DG42 is expressed during early embryonic development, between the midblastula and neurulation stages. The deduced protein sequence of Xenopus DG42 shows similarity to Rhizobium Nod C, Streptococcus Has A, and fungal chitin synthases. Previously, we found that the DG42 protein made in an in vitro transcription/translation system catalyzed synthesis of an array of chitin oligosaccharides. Here we show that cell extracts from early Xenopus and zebrafish embryos also synthesize chitooligosaccharides. cDNA fragments homologous to DG42 from zebrafish and mouse were also cloned and sequenced. Expression of these homologs was similar to that described for Xenopus based on Northern and Western blot analysis. The Xenopus anti-DG42 antibody recognized a 63-kDa protein in extracts from zebrafish embryos that followed a similar developmental expression pattern to that previously described for Xenopus. The chitin oligosaccharide synthase activity found in extracts was inactivated by a specific DG42 antibody; synthesis of hyaluronic acid (HA) was not affected under the conditions tested. Other experiments demonstrate that expression of DG42 under plasmid control in mouse 3T3 cells gives rise to chitooligosaccharide synthase activity without an increase in HA synthase level. A possible relationship between our results and those of other investigators, which show stimulation of HA synthesis by DG42 in mammalian cell culture systems, is provided by structural analyses to be published elsewhere that suggest that chitin oligosaccharides are present at the reducing ends of HA chains. Since in at least one vertebrate system hyaluronic acid formation can be inhibited by a pure chitinase, it seems possible that chitin oligosaccharides serve as primers for hyaluronic acid synthesis.

Evaluation of individual protein errors in silver-stained two-dimensional gels

The relationship between spot volume and variation for all protein spots observed on large format 2D gels when utilising silver stain technology and a model system based on mammalian NSO cell extracts is reported. By running multiple gels we have shown that the reproducibility of data generated in this way is dependent on individual protein spot volumes, which in turn are directly correlated with the coefficient of variation. The coefficients of variation across all observed protein spots were highest for low abundant proteins which are the primary contributors to process error, and lowest for more abundant proteins. Using the relationship between spot volume and coefficient of variation we show it is necessary to calculate variation for individual protein spot volumes. The inherent limitations of silver staining therefore mean that errors in individual protein spot volumes must be considered when assessing significant changes in protein spot volume and not global error. (C) 2003 Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

Production d'IgG sialylées en CHO et impact sur leurs fonctions effectrices

La sialylation des N-glycanes du fragment Fc des immunogobulines G (IgG) est une modification peu fréquente des IgG humaines. Pourtant, elle est l’objet de beaucoup d’attention depuis que deux articles fondateurs ont été publiés, qui montrent l’un que la sialylation des IgG diminue leur capacité à déclencher la cytotoxicité cellulaire dépendant de l’anticorps (ADCC), et l’autre que les IgG sialylées en α2,6 seraient la fraction efficace des IgG intraveineuses (IgIV) anti-inflammatoires. Les anticorps monoclonaux thérapeutiques, qui sont le plus souvent des IgG recombinantes produites en culture de cellules de mammifère, connaissent depuis la fin des années 90 un succès et une croissance phénoménaux sur le marché pharmaceutique. La maîtrise de la N-glycosylation du Fc des IgG est une clé de l’efficacité des anticorps monoclonaux. Si les IgG sialylées sont des molécules peu fréquentes in vivo, elles sont très rares en culture cellulaire. Dans cette étude, nous avons développé une méthode de production d’IgG avec une sialylation de type humain en cellules CHO. Nous avons travaillé principalement sur la mise au point d’une stratégie de production d’IgG sialylées par co-expression transitoire d’une IgG1 avec la β1,4-galactosyltransférase I (β4GTI) et la β-galactoside-α2,6-sialyltransférase I (ST6GalI). Nous avons montré que cette méthode permettait d’enrichir l’IgG1 en glycane fucosylé di-galactosylé mono-α2,6-sialylé G2FS(6)1, qui est le glycane sialylé présent sur les IgG humaines. Nous avons ensuite adapté cette méthode à la production d’IgG présentant des profils de glycosylation riches en acides sialiques, riches en galactose terminal, et/ou appauvris en fucosylation. L’analyse des profils de glycosylation obtenus par la co-expression de diverses combinaisons enzymatiques avec l’IgG1 native ou une version mutante de l’IgG1 (F243A), a permis de discuter des influences respectives de la sous-galactosylation des IgG1 en CHO et des contraintes structurales du Fc dans la limitation de la sialylation des IgG en CHO. Nous avons ensuite utilisé les IgG1 produites avec différents profils de glycosylation afin d’évaluer l’impact de la sialylation α2,6 sur l’interaction de l’IgG avec le récepteur FcγRIIIa, principal récepteur impliqué dans la réponse ADCC. Nous avons montré que la sialylation α2,6 augmentait la stabilité du complexe formé par l’IgG avec le FcγRIIIa, mais que ce bénéfice n’était pas directement traduit par une augmentation de l’efficacité ADCC de l’anticorps. Enfin, nous avons débuté le développement d’une plateforme d’expression stable d’IgG sialylées compatible avec une production à l’échelle industrielle. Nous avons obtenu une lignée capable de produire des IgG enrichies en G2FS(6)1 à hauteur de 400 mg/L. Cette étude a contribué à une meilleure compréhension de l’impact de la sialylation sur les fonctions effectrices des IgG, et a permis d’augmenter la maîtrise des techniques de modulation du profil de glycosylation des IgG en culture cellulaire.

Production d'IgG sialylées en CHO et impact sur leurs fonctions effectrices

La sialylation des N-glycanes du fragment Fc des immunogobulines G (IgG) est une modification peu fréquente des IgG humaines. Pourtant, elle est l’objet de beaucoup d’attention depuis que deux articles fondateurs ont été publiés, qui montrent l’un que la sialylation des IgG diminue leur capacité à déclencher la cytotoxicité cellulaire dépendant de l’anticorps (ADCC), et l’autre que les IgG sialylées en α2,6 seraient la fraction efficace des IgG intraveineuses (IgIV) anti-inflammatoires. Les anticorps monoclonaux thérapeutiques, qui sont le plus souvent des IgG recombinantes produites en culture de cellules de mammifère, connaissent depuis la fin des années 90 un succès et une croissance phénoménaux sur le marché pharmaceutique. La maîtrise de la N-glycosylation du Fc des IgG est une clé de l’efficacité des anticorps monoclonaux. Si les IgG sialylées sont des molécules peu fréquentes in vivo, elles sont très rares en culture cellulaire. Dans cette étude, nous avons développé une méthode de production d’IgG avec une sialylation de type humain en cellules CHO. Nous avons travaillé principalement sur la mise au point d’une stratégie de production d’IgG sialylées par co-expression transitoire d’une IgG1 avec la β1,4-galactosyltransférase I (β4GTI) et la β-galactoside-α2,6-sialyltransférase I (ST6GalI). Nous avons montré que cette méthode permettait d’enrichir l’IgG1 en glycane fucosylé di-galactosylé mono-α2,6-sialylé G2FS(6)1, qui est le glycane sialylé présent sur les IgG humaines. Nous avons ensuite adapté cette méthode à la production d’IgG présentant des profils de glycosylation riches en acides sialiques, riches en galactose terminal, et/ou appauvris en fucosylation. L’analyse des profils de glycosylation obtenus par la co-expression de diverses combinaisons enzymatiques avec l’IgG1 native ou une version mutante de l’IgG1 (F243A), a permis de discuter des influences respectives de la sous-galactosylation des IgG1 en CHO et des contraintes structurales du Fc dans la limitation de la sialylation des IgG en CHO. Nous avons ensuite utilisé les IgG1 produites avec différents profils de glycosylation afin d’évaluer l’impact de la sialylation α2,6 sur l’interaction de l’IgG avec le récepteur FcγRIIIa, principal récepteur impliqué dans la réponse ADCC. Nous avons montré que la sialylation α2,6 augmentait la stabilité du complexe formé par l’IgG avec le FcγRIIIa, mais que ce bénéfice n’était pas directement traduit par une augmentation de l’efficacité ADCC de l’anticorps. Enfin, nous avons débuté le développement d’une plateforme d’expression stable d’IgG sialylées compatible avec une production à l’échelle industrielle. Nous avons obtenu une lignée capable de produire des IgG enrichies en G2FS(6)1 à hauteur de 400 mg/L. Cette étude a contribué à une meilleure compréhension de l’impact de la sialylation sur les fonctions effectrices des IgG, et a permis d’augmenter la maîtrise des techniques de modulation du profil de glycosylation des IgG en culture cellulaire.

Glutathione synthesis is essential for mouse development but not for cell growth in culture

Glutathione (GSH) is a major source of reducing equivalents in mammalian cells. To examine the role of GSH synthesis in development and cell growth, we generated mice deficient in GSH by a targeted disruption of the heavy subunit of γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (γGCS-HStm1), an essential enzyme in GSH synthesis. Embryos homozygous for γGCS-HStm1 fail to gastrulate, do not form mesoderm, develop distal apoptosis, and die before day 8.5. Lethality results from apoptotic cell death rather than reduced cell proliferation. We also isolated cell lines from homozygous mutant blastocysts in medium containing GSH. These cells also grow indefinitely in GSH-free medium supplemented with N-acetylcysteine and have undetectable levels of GSH; further, they show no changes in mitochondrial morphology as judged by electron microscopy. These data demonstrate that GSH is required for mammalian development but dispensable in cell culture and that the functions of GSH, not GSH itself, are essential for cell growth.

Fish nodavirus lytic cycle and semipermissive expression in mammalian and fish cell cultures

In this study, Dicentrarchus labrax encephalitis virus (DIEV), which causes sea bass encephalitis, was propagated in cell culture, thus allowing study of its lytic cycle, DIEV infection of mammalian and fish cells induced different patterns of expression of capsid proteins, which were assembled as virus-like particles, accumulating in the cytoplasm either as diffuse masses or in vesicles, as shown by electron microscopy, These particles correspond to virions, as shown by their ability to induce Secondary infection, Fish cells proved to be more permissive for DIEV than mammalian cells, although virus yield remained low, RNA analysis of infected sea bass cells revealed DIEV RNA3, in addition to genomic RNA1 and RNA2, and the presence of the RNA;! minus strand, thus demonstrating the replication of the DIEV genome, In addition, DIEV RNA-dependent RNA polymerase was associated with mature virions even after purification by a CsCl gradient, but it was dissociated when capsids were destabilized, In addition to providing more information about the relatedness of DIEV to the members of the family Nodaviridae, this study shows that fish nodaviruses may not be able to infect as wide a variety of cells as insect nodaviruses can.

Single molecule microscopy in 3D cell cultures and tissues

From the onset of the first microscopic visualization of single fluorescent molecules in living cells at the beginning of this century, to the present, almost routine application of single molecule microscopy, the method has well-proven its ability to contribute unmatched detailed insight into the heterogeneous and dynamic molecular world life is composed of. Except for investigations on bacteria and yeast, almost the entire story of success is based on studies on adherent mammalian 2D cell cultures. However, despite this continuous progress, the technique was not able to keep pace with the move of the cell biology community to adapt 3D cell culture models for basic research, regenerative medicine, or drug development and screening. In this review, we will summarize the progress, which only recently allowed for the application of single molecule microscopy to 3D cell systems and give an overview of the technical advances that led to it. While initially posing a challenge, we finally conclude that relevant 3D cell models will become an integral part of the on-going success of single molecule microscopy.

Mammalian Mat1 subunit of Transcription Factor IIH in gene-specific and general transcription

All protein-encoding genes in eukaryotes are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) by RNA Polymerase II (RNAP II), whose activity therefore needs to be tightly controlled. An important and only partially understood level of regulation is the multiple phosphorylations of RNAP II large subunit C-terminal domain (CTD). Sequential phosphorylations regulate transcription initiation and elongation, and recruit factors involved in co-transcriptional processing of mRNA. Based largely on studies in yeast models and in vitro, the kinase activity responsible for the phosphorylation of the serine-5 (Ser5) residues of RNAP II CTD has been attributed to the Mat1/Cdk7/CycH trimer as part of Transcription Factor IIH. However, due to the lack of good mammalian genetic models, the roles of both RNAP II Ser5 phosphorylation as well as TFIIH kinase in transcription have provided ambiguous results and the in vivo kinase of Ser5 has remained elusive. The primary objective of this study was to elucidate the role of mammalian TFIIH, and specifically the Mat1 subunit in CTD phosphorylation and general RNAP II-mediated transcription. The approach utilized the Cre-LoxP system to conditionally delete murine Mat1 in cardiomyocytes and hepatocytes in vivo and and in cell culture models. The results identify the TFIIH kinase as the major mammalian Ser5 kinase and demonstrate its requirement for general transcription, noted by the use of nascent mRNA labeling. Also a role for Mat1 in regulating general mRNA turnover was identified, providing a possible rationale for earlier negative findings. A secondary objective was to identify potential gene- and tissue-specific roles of Mat1 and the TFIIH kinase through the use of tissue-specific Mat1 deletion. Mat1 was found to be required for the transcriptional function of PGC-1 in cardiomyocytes. Transriptional activation of lipogenic SREBP1 target genes following Mat1 deletion in hepatocytes revealed a repressive role for Mat1apparently mediated via co-repressor DMAP1 and the DNA methyltransferase Dnmt1. Finally, Mat1 and Cdk7 were also identified as a negative regulators of adipocyte differentiation through the inhibitory phosphorylation of Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) γ. Together, these results demonstrate gene- and tissue-specific roles for the Mat1 subunit of TFIIH and open up new therapeutic possibilities in the treatment of diseases such as type II diabetes, hepatosteatosis and obesity.

Amino acid substitutions in σ1 and μ1 outer capsid proteins are selected during mammalian reovirus adaptation to Vero cells

Establishment of viral persistence in cell culture has previously led to the selection of mammalian reovirus mutants, although very few of those have been characterized in details. In the present study, reovirus was adapted to Vero cells that, in contrast to classically-used L929 cells, are inefficient in supporting the early steps of reovirus uncoating and are also unable to produce interferon as an antiviral response once infection occurs. The Vero cell-adapted reovirus exhibits amino acids substitutions in both the σ1 and μ1 proteins. This contrasts with uncoating mutants from persistently-infected L929 cells, and various other cell types, that generally harbor amino acids substitutions in the σ3 outer capsid protein. The Vero cell-adapted virus remained sensitive to an inhibitor of lysosomal proteases; furthermore, in the absence of selective pressure for its maintenance, t he virus has partially lost its ability to resist interferon. The positions of the amino acids substitutions on the known protein structures suggest an effect on binding of the viral σ1 protein to the cell surface and on μ1 disassembly from the outer capsid.

Growth inhibition of mammalian cells by synthetic and natural photosensitising agents

A mammalian cell line, J774, was susceptible to both synthetic and natural photosensitising agents after irradiation with long-wave ultraviolet light. Both UV-A light and psoralen did not affect cell growth individually; a reduction in visual confluency was achieved only when psoralen and UV-A light were used in combination. The maximum visual confluency decreased by 55% when 50 ppm psoralen was added to a growing culture and irradiated with UV light for 3 min. Decreasing the UV-A exposure times from 3 min to 3 s did not greatly affect the maximum total visual confluence reached using different synthetic psoralen concentrations, but did affect the rate at which cell death occurred. The 3 min exposure time resulted in a rapid decrease in cell numbers in comparison to 3 s exposure time. Synthetic psoralen was found to have an increasing photosensitising activity with increasing concentration using a logarithmic shift between 0.5 ppm and 50 ppm. A visual confluency of 45% was achieved using concentrations of 50 ppm psoralen, and 70% visual confluency using 0.5 ppm. Natural mixtures of furanocoumarins containing psoralens, obtained from two separate parsley sources, were found to have greater efficacy at inhibiting the growth cycle of the cells when compared to the synthetic psoralen.

Investigation of K14/K5 as a stem cell marker in the limbal region of the bovine cornea

Background: Identification of stem cells from a corneal epithelial cell population by specific molecular markers has been investigated previously. Expressions of P63, ABCG2 and K14/K5 have all been linked to mammalian corneal epithelial stem cells. Here we report on the limitations of K14/K5 as a limbal stem cell marker. Methodology/Principal Findings: K14/K5 expression was measured by immunohistochemistry, Western blotting and Real time PCR and compared between bovine epithelial cells in the limbus and central cornea. A functional study was also included to investigate changes in K5/14 expression within cultured limbal epithelial cells undergoing forced differentiation. K14 expression (or its partner K5) was detected in quiescent epithelial cells from both the limbal area and central cornea. K14 was localized predominantly to basal epithelial cells in the limbus and suprabasal epithelial cells in the central cornea. Western blotting revealed K14 expression in both limbus and central cornea (higher levels in the limbus). Similarly, quantitative real time PCR found K5, partner to K14, to be expressed in both the central cornea and limbus. Following forced differentiation in culture the limbal epithelial cells revealed an increase in K5/14 gene/protein expression levels in concert with a predictable rise in a known differentiation marker. Conclusions/Significance: K14 and its partner K5 are limited not only to the limbus but also to the central bovine cornea epithelial cells suggesting K14/K5 is not limbal specific in situ. Furthermore K14/K5 expression levels were not lowered (in fact they increased) within a limbal epithelial cell culture undergoing forced differentiation suggesting K14/K5 is an unreliable maker for undifferentiated cells ex vivo.

Alanine-rich amphiphilic peptide containing the RGD cell adhesion motif: a coating material for human fibroblast attachment and culture

We studied the self-assembly of peptide A6RGD (A: alanine, R: arginine, G: glycine, D: aspartic acid) in water, and the use of A6RGD substrates as coatings to promote the attachment of human cornea stromal fibroblasts (hCSFs). The self-assembled motif of A6RGD was shown to depend on the peptide concentration in water, where both vesicle and fibril formation were observed. Oligomers were detected for 0.7 wt% A6RGD, which evolved into short peptide fibres at 1.0 wt% A6RGD, while a co-existence of vesicles and long peptide fibres was revealed for 2–15 wt% A6RGD. A6RGD vesicle walls were shown to have a multilayer structure built out of highly interdigitated A6 units, while A6RGD fibres were based on β-sheet assemblies. Changes in the self-assembly motif with concentration were reflected in the cell culture assay results. Films dried from 0.1–1.0 wt% A6RGD solutions allowed hCSFs to attach and significantly enhanced cell proliferation relative to the control. In contrast, films dried from 2.5 wt% A6RGD solutions were toxic to hCSFs.

The induction of cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and genotoxicity by root canal sealers in mammalian cells

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Anti-genotoxic effect of aqueous extracts of sun mushroom (Agaricus blazei Murill lineage 99/26) in mammalian cells in vitro

The sun mushroom is the popular name for the Agaricus blazei Murill fungus, a mushroom native to south-eastern Brazil, which has been frequently used in popular medicine mainly in the form of tea to treat various ailments (stress, diabetes, etc.). In the present study, the genotoxic and/or anti-genotoxic effects ofA. blazei on mammalian cells in culture was assessed by checking the increase or reduction of micronucleus (MN) frequency and comets. The sun mushroom (lineage 99/26) was used as aqueous extracts prepared (2.5%) at three different temperatures (60, 25 and 4°C). The in vitro micronucleus (MN) test in binucleated cells and comet assay were used in V79 cells cultivated in HAM-F10+DMEM medium (1:1), supplemented with 10% of fetal bovine serum. The experiments were divided into four treatment types: 1. Negative control; 2. Positive control with MMS; 3. Treatments with the three forms of extracts (60, 25 and 4°C); and 4. Treatments with the extracts in different associations (simultaneous, pre-treatment, post-treatment and simultaneous after pre-incubation for 1 h) with MMS. None of the A. blazei extracts show genotoxic activity. In the comet assay no protecting effect was found. The results obtained in the MN test showed that the three forms of extracts used had protective activity, suggesting that the compound or active ingredients of A. blazei are always present in these extracts. The greater protective efficiency of the simultaneous treatment and simultaneous treatment with pre-incubation mixture with MMS suggests that the extracts have an antimutagenic action of the desmutagenic type. © 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.