Drones y el orden legal internacional. Tecnología, estrategia y largas cadenas de acción

The main thesis of this article is that the increasing recourse to the use of unmanned aerial systems in asymmetric warfare and the beginning routinization of U.S. drone operations represent part of an evolutionary change in the spatial ordering of global politics -- Using a heuristic framework based on actor-network theory, it is argued that practices of panoptic observation and selective airstrikes, being in need of legal justification, contribute to a reterritorialization of asymmetric conflicts -- Under a new normative spatial regime, a legal condition of state immaturity is constructed, which establishes a zone of conditional sovereignty subject to transnational aerial policing -- At the same time, this process is neither a deterministic result of the new technology nor a deliberate effect of policies to which drones are merely neutral instruments -- Rather, military technology and political decisions both form part of a long chain of action which has evolved under the specific circumstances of recent military interventions

New developments in UAV remote sensing for pest management and the implications for cotton

Efficient crop monitoring and pest damage assessments are key to protecting the Australian agricultural industry and ensuring its leading position internationally. An important element in pest detection is gathering reliable crop data frequently and integrating analysis tools for decision making. Unmanned aerial systems are emerging as a cost-effective solution to a number of precision agriculture challenges. An important advantage of this technology is it provides a non-invasive aerial sensor platform to accurately monitor broad acre crops. In this presentation, we will give an overview on how unmanned aerial systems and machine learning can be combined to address crop protection challenges. A recent 2015 study on insect damage in sorghum will illustrate the effectiveness of this methodology. A UAV platform equipped with a high-resolution camera was deployed to autonomously perform a flight pattern over the target area. We describe the image processing pipeline implemented to create a georeferenced orthoimage and visualize the spatial distribution of the damage. An image analysis tool has been developed to minimize human input requirements. The computer program is based on a machine learning algorithm that automatically creates a meaningful partition of the image into clusters. Results show the algorithm delivers decision boundaries that accurately classify the field into crop health levels. The methodology presented in this paper represents a venue for further research towards automated crop protection assessments in the cotton industry, with applications in detecting, quantifying and monitoring the presence of mealybugs, mites and aphid pests.

Reconocimiento de una plataforma para aterrizaje de UAV mediante procesamiento de imágenes

En el año 2016 se vendieron en EE.UU más de un millón de Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs, Vehículos aéreos no tripulados), casi el doble que el año anterior, país del que se dispone de información. Para el año 2020 se estima que este mercado alcance los 5.600 millones de dólares en todo el mundo, creciendo a un ritmo del 30% anual. Este crecimiento demuestra que existe un mercado en expansión con muchas y diversas oportunidades de investigación. El rango de aplicaciones en los que se utiliza este tipo de vehículos es innumerable. Desde finales del s.XX, los UAVs han estado presentes en multitud de aplicaciones, principalmente en misiones de reconocimiento. Su principal ventaja radica en que pueden ser utilizados en situaciones de alto riesgo sin suponer una amenaza para ningún tripulante. En los últimos años, la fabricación de vehículos asequibles económicamente ha permitido que su uso se extienda a otros sectores. A día de hoy uno de los campos en los que ha adquirido gran relevancia es en agricultura, contribuyendo a la automatización y monitorización de cultivos, pero también se ha extendido su uso a diferentes sistemas, tales como seguridad, cartografía o monitorización, entre otros [1]. Es en esta situación en la que se propone el proyecto SALACOM [2], que explora la posibilidad de utilizar esta tecnología en sistemas de repuesta rápida para la detección y contención de vertidos contaminantes en entornos acuáticos con el apoyo de vehículos autónomos marinos de superficie (USV, Unmanned Surface Vehicles). En el mencionado proyecto se pretende utilizar sistemas UAVs para detectar y analizar las zonas de vertido y proveer la información respecto a la localización y las técnicas de contención adecuadas a los sistemas USV. Una vez se haya realizado el análisis de la situación del vertido, los USV trabajarían conjuntamente con los UAVs para desplegar las barreras de protección seleccionadas en la zona afectada. Para esto, los UAVs o drones, términos similares en lo que respecta a este proyecto y que a lo largo de esta memoria se usarán indistintamente, deben ser capaces de despegar desde los USV y volver a aterrizar sobre ellos una vez realizada su labor. El proyecto que se describe en la presente memoria se centra en la fase de aterrizaje y, más concretamente, en la detección de la plataforma seleccionada como plantilla mediante técnicas de tratamiento de imágenes. Esto serviría como sistema de apoyo para guiar el dron hacia la plataforma para que pueda realizar el descenso correctamente y finalizar así su misión o bien para realizar operaciones de recarga de la batería. El dron está equipado con la correspondiente cámara de visión a bordo, con la que obtiene las imágenes, las procesa e identifica la plataforma para dirigirse hacia ella, si bien, dado que el sistema de procesamiento de imágenes no se encuentra totalmente operativo, este trabajo se centra en el desarrollo de una aplicación software independiente del sistema de visión a bordo del dron, basada en el desarrollo de técnicas de reconocimiento de la plataforma. La plataforma a utilizar proviene de una patente [3], consistente en una figura geométrica con formas características, de muy difícil aparición en entornos de exterior. La figura pintada en negro se halla impresa sobre un panel de fondo blanco de 1m × 1m de superficie. En este trabajo se han explorado diversas opciones disponibles para realizar la identificación de las regiones de interés. El principal objetivo es realizar la selección de una tecnología que pueda cumplir potencialmente con los criterios necesarios para llevar a cabo la tarea y seleccionar los métodos de detección adecuados para realizar la identificación de la figura contenida en la plataforma. Se ha pretendido utilizar tecnologías de fácil uso, amplío soporte y, cuando ha sido posible, de código libre. Todo ello integrado en una aplicación informática, que es la que se presenta en el presente trabajo.

As ruturas epistemológicas na cultura aeronáutica resultantes da emergência da guerra aérea remota

A evolução tecnológica e a necessidade operacional de Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) ditarão, a curto trecho, a sua expansão funcional à quase totalidade das áreas de missão tipicamente reservadas às plataformas tripuladas. Talvez a maior barreira à adoção dos UAS de forma plena, pela United States Air Force (USAF) em particular, e por extensão a outras Forças Aéreas que partilhem de valores semelhantes, será a alteração da cultura organizacional, no sentido de promover a aceitação dos sistemas não tripulados como capacidades idênticas às providenciadas pelas aeronaves tripuladas. Este artigo pretende explorar algumas das forças dissociativas que resistem à integração dos UAS na estrutura de força de uma instituição, tomando como exemplo a USAF enquanto maior utilizadora destes sistemas e influenciadora das tendências futuras do Poder Aéreo. Para melhor percebermos os desafios culturais que despontam do emprego em larga escala de UAS de combate, teremos de percorrer o processo de independência da USAF e a validação estratégica do Poder Aéreo enquanto instrumento militar preferencial

The role of agriculture and food consumption in tropical conservation

A growing human population, shifting human dietary habits, and climate change are negatively affecting global ecosystems on a massive scale. Expanding agricultural areas to feed a growing population drives extensive habitat loss, and climate change compounds stresses on both food security and ecosystems. Understanding the negative effects of human diet and climate change on agricultural and natural ecosystems provides a context within which potential technological and behavioral solutions can be proposed to help maximize conservation. The purpose of this research was to (1) examine the potential effects of climate change on the suitability of areas for commercial banana plantations in Latin America in the 2050s and how shifts in growing areas could affect protected areas; (2) test the ability of small unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to map productivity of banana plantations as a potential tool for increasing yields and decreasing future plantation expansions; (3) project the effects on biodiversity of increasing rates of animal product consumption in developing megadiverse countries; and (4) estimate the capacity of global pasture biomass production and Fischer-Tropsch hydrocarbon synthesis (IGCC-FT) processing to meet electricity, gasoline and diesel needs. The results indicate that (1) the overall extent of areas suitable for conventional banana cultivation is predicted to decrease by 19% by 2050 because of a hotter and drier climate, but all current banana exporting countries are predicted to maintain some suitable areas with no effects on protected areas; (2) Spatial patterns of NDVI and ENDVI were significantly positively correlated with several metrics of fruit yield and quality, indicating that UAV systems can be used in banana plantations to map spatial patterns of fruit yield; (3) Livestock production is the single largest driver of habitat loss, and both livestock and feedstock production are increasing in developing biodiverse tropical countries. Reducing global animal product consumption should therefore be at the forefront of strategies aimed at reducing biodiversity loss; (4) Removing livestock from global pasture lands and instead utilizing the biomass production could produce enough energy to meet 100% of the electricity, gasoline, and diesel needs of over 40 countries with extensive grassland ecosystems, primarily in tropical developing countries.^

Robust Adaptive Control with Applications to Multi-Agent Systems and Mobile Robotics

This thesis deals with robust adaptive control and its applications, and it is divided into three main parts. The first part is about the design of robust estimation algorithms based on recursive least squares. First, we present an estimator for the frequencies of biased multi-harmonic signals, and then an algorithm for distributed estimation of an unknown parameter over a network of adaptive agents. In the second part of this thesis, we consider a cooperative control problem over uncertain networks of linear systems and Kuramoto systems, in which the agents have to track the reference generated by a leader exosystem. Since the reference signal is not available to each network node, novel distributed observers are designed so as to reconstruct the reference signal locally for each agent, and therefore decentralizing the problem. In the third and final part of this thesis, we consider robust estimation tasks for mobile robotics applications. In particular, we first consider the problem of slip estimation for agricultural tracked vehicles. Then, we consider a search and rescue application in which we need to drive an unmanned aerial vehicle as close as possible to the unknown (and to be estimated) position of a victim, who is buried under the snow after an avalanche event. In this thesis, robustness is intended as an input-to-state stability property of the proposed identifiers (sometimes referred to as adaptive laws), with respect to additive disturbances, and relative to a steady-state trajectory that is associated with a correct estimation of the unknown parameter to be found.

Technologies for urban and rural internet of things

Nowadays, application domains such as smart cities, agriculture or intelligent transportation, require communication technologies that combine long transmission ranges and energy efficiency to fulfill a set of capabilities and constraints to rely on. In addition, in recent years, the interest in Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) providing wireless connectivity in such scenarios is substantially increased thanks to their flexible deployment. The first chapters of this thesis deal with LoRaWAN and Narrowband-IoT (NB-IoT), which recent trends identify as the most promising Low Power Wide Area Networks technologies. While LoRaWAN is an open protocol that has gained a lot of interest thanks to its simplicity and energy efficiency, NB-IoT has been introduced from 3GPP as a radio access technology for massive machine-type communications inheriting legacy LTE characteristics. This thesis offers an overview of the two, comparing them in terms of selected performance indicators. In particular, LoRaWAN technology is assessed both via simulations and experiments, considering different network architectures and solutions to improve its performance (e.g., a new Adaptive Data Rate algorithm). NB-IoT is then introduced to identify which technology is more suitable depending on the application considered. The second part of the thesis introduces the use of UAVs as flying Base Stations, denoted as Unmanned Aerial Base Stations, (UABSs), which are considered as one of the key pillars of 6G to offer service for a number of applications. To this end, the performance of an NB-IoT network are assessed considering a UABS following predefined trajectories. Then, machine learning algorithms based on reinforcement learning and meta-learning are considered to optimize the trajectory as well as the radio resource management techniques the UABS may rely on in order to provide service considering both static (IoT sensors) and dynamic (vehicles) users. Finally, some experimental projects based on the technologies mentioned so far are presented.

Progetto preliminare e modellazione CAD di UAV ad ala rotante per impieghi agricoli

In questa tesi viene descritto uno studio preliminare su un velivolo ad ala rotante UAV (Unmanned Aerial Veichle) per supportare l'agricoltura di precisione. E' stato implementato in ambiente Matlab un semplice modello matematico per stimare la trazione del rotore principale in un elicottero. Successivamente, è stata presa in considerazone una meccanica commerciale per modellismo che potrebbe essere adottata per sveltire i tempi di sviluppo di questo UAV: la Graupner UNI-Mechanics 2000. E' stato, quindi, modellato al CAD un prototipo di struttura da realizzare tramite tecniche di Additive Manufacturing: questa parte è stata concepita per essere collegata alla meccanica dell'elicottero e può ospitare due taniche contenenti le sostanze da irrorare sulle colture. A livello di sviluppo futuro, si propone di applicare tecniche di ottimizzazione topologica alla struttura di collegamento per ottenere uno sfruttamento ottimale del materiale e ridurre le masse di questo componente.

Assessing the relationship between bee/flower diversity and vegetation structural heterogeneity through UAV photogrammetry

The ecosystem services provided by bees are very important. Factors as habitat fragmentation, intensive agriculture and climate change are contributing to the decline of bee populations. The use of remote sensing could be a useful tool for the recognition of sites with a high diversity, before performing a more expensive survey in the field. In this study the ability of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) images to estimate biodiversity at local scale has been analysed testing the concept of the Height Variation Hypothesis (HVH). This approach states that, the higher the vegetation height heterogeneity (HH) measured by remote sensing information, the higher the vertical complexity and the higher vegetation species diversity. In this thesis the concept has been brought to a higher level, in order to understand if the vegetation HH can be considered a proxy also of bee species diversity and abundance. We tested this approach collecting field data on bees/flowers and RGB images through an UAV campaign in 30 grasslands in the South of the Netherlands. The Canopy Height Model (CHM) were derived through the photogrammetry technique "Structure from Motion" (SfM) with resolutions of 10cm, 25cm, 50cm. Successively, the HH assessed on the CHM using the Rao's Q heterogeneity index was correlated to the field data (bee abundance, diversity and bee/flower species richness). The correlations were all positive and significant. The highest R2 values were found when the HH was calculated at 10cm and correlated to bee species richness (R2 = 0.41) and Shannon’s H index (R2 = 0.38). Using a lower spatial resolution the goodness of fit slightly decreases. For flower species richness the R2 ranged between 0.36 to 0.39. Our results suggest that methods based on the concept behind the HVH, in this case deriving information of HH from UAV data, can be developed into valuable tools for large-scale, standardized and cost-effective monitoring of flower diversity and of the habitat quality for bees.

Flower cover and bee diversity estimate by drone RGB images

Worldwide, biodiversity is decreasing due to climate change, habitat fragmentation and agricultural intensification. Bees are essential crops pollinator, but their abundance and diversity are decreasing as well. For their conservation, it is necessary to assess the status of bee population. Field data collection methods are expensive and time consuming thus, recently, new methods based on remote sensing are used. In this study we tested the possibility of using flower cover diversity estimated by UAV images (FCD-UAV) to assess bee diversity and abundance in 10 agricultural meadows in the Netherlands. In order to do so, field data of flower and bee diversity and abundance were collected during a campaign in May 2021. Furthermore, RGB images of the areas have been collected using Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) and post-processed into orthomosaics. Lastly, Random Forest machine learning algorithm was applied to estimate FCD of the species detected in each field. Resulting FCD was expressed with Shannon and Simpson diversity indices, which were successively correlated to bee Shannon and Simpson diversity indices, abundance and species richness. The results showed a positive relationship between FCD-UAV and in-situ collected data about bee diversity, evaluated with Shannon index, abundance and species richness. The strongest relationship was found between FCD (Shannon Index) and bee abundance with R2=0.52. Following, good correlations were found with bee species richness (R2=0.39) and bee diversity (R2=0.37). R2 values of the relationship between FCD (Simpson Index) and bee abundance, species richness and diversity were slightly inferior (0.45, 0.37 and 0.35, respectively). Our results suggest that the proposed method based on the coupling of UAV imagery and machine learning for the assessment of flower species diversity could be developed into valuable tools for large-scale, standardized and cost-effective monitoring of flower cover and of the habitat quality for bees.

Dynamic modeling, simulation and control design of a parafoil-payload system for ship launched aerial delivery system (SLADS)

The objective of this research was to develop a high-fidelity dynamic model of a parafoilpayload system with respect to its application for the Ship Launched Aerial Delivery System (SLADS). SLADS is a concept in which cargo can be transfered from ship to shore using a parafoil-payload system. It is accomplished in two phases: An initial towing phase when the glider follows the towing vessel in a passive lift mode and an autonomous gliding phase when the system is guided to the desired point. While many previous researchers have analyzed the parafoil-payload system when it is released from another airborne vehicle, limited work has been done in the area of towing up the system from ground or sea. One of the main contributions of this research was the development of a nonlinear dynamic model of a towed parafoil-payload system. After performing an extensive literature review of the existing methods of modeling a parafoil-payload system, a five degree-of-freedom model was developed. The inertial and geometric properties of the system were investigated to predict accurate results in the simulation environment. Since extensive research has been done in determining the aerodynamic characteristics of a paraglider, an existing aerodynamic model was chosen to incorporate the effects of air flow around the flexible paraglider wing. During the towing phase, it is essential that the parafoil-payload system follow the line of the towing vessel path to prevent an unstable flight condition called ‘lockout’. A detailed study of the causes of lockout, its mathematical representation and the flight conditions and the parameters related to lockout, constitute another contribution of this work. A linearized model of the parafoil-payload system was developed and used to analyze the stability of the system about equilibrium conditions. The relationship between the control surface inputs and the stability was investigated. In addition to stability of flight, one more important objective of SLADS is to tow up the parafoil-payload system as fast as possible. The tension in the tow cable is directly proportional to the rate of ascent of the parafoil-payload system. Lockout instability is more favorable when tow tensions are large. Thus there is a tradeoff between susceptibility to lockout and rapid deployment. Control strategies were also developed for optimal tow up and to maintain stability in the event of disturbances.

Digital Vertical Aerial Camera System for High-resolution Site Inspections in Conservation Easment Monitoring

A three-level satellite to ground monitoring scheme for conservation easement monitoring has been implemented in which high-resolution imagery serves as an intermediate step for inspecting high priority sites. A digital vertical aerial camera system was developed to fulfill the need for an economical source of imagery for this intermediate step. A method for attaching the camera system to small aircraft was designed, and the camera system was calibrated and tested. To ensure that the images obtained were of suitable quality for use in Level 2 inspections, rectified imagery was required to provide positional accuracy of 5 meters or less to be comparable to current commercially available high-resolution satellite imagery. Focal length calibration was performed to discover the infinity focal length at two lens settings (24mm and 35mm) with a precision of O.1mm. Known focal length is required for creation of navigation points representing locations to be photographed (waypoints). Photographing an object of known size at distances on a test range allowed estimates of focal lengths of 25.lmm and 35.4mm for the 24mm and 35mm lens settings, respectively. Constants required for distortion removal procedures were obtained using analytical plumb-line calibration procedures for both lens settings, with mild distortion at the 24mm setting and virtually no distortion found at the 35mm setting. The system was designed to operate in a series of stages: mission planning, mission execution, and post-mission processing. During mission planning, waypoints were created using custom tools in geographic information system (GIs) software. During mission execution, the camera is connected to a laptop computer with a global positioning system (GPS) receiver attached. Customized mobile GIs software accepts position information from the GPS receiver, provides information for navigation, and automatically triggers the camera upon reaching the desired location. Post-mission processing (rectification) of imagery for removal of lens distortion effects, correction of imagery for horizontal displacement due to terrain variations (relief displacement), and relating the images to ground coordinates were performed with no more than a second-order polynomial warping function. Accuracy testing was performed to verify the positional accuracy capabilities of the system in an ideal-case scenario as well as a real-world case. Using many welldistributed and highly accurate control points on flat terrain, the rectified images yielded median positional accuracy of 0.3 meters. Imagery captured over commercial forestland with varying terrain in eastern Maine, rectified to digital orthophoto quadrangles, yielded median positional accuracies of 2.3 meters with accuracies of 3.1 meters or better in 75 percent of measurements made. These accuracies were well within performance requirements. The images from the digital camera system are of high quality, displaying significant detail at common flying heights. At common flying heights the ground resolution of the camera system ranges between 0.07 meters and 0.67 meters per pixel, satisfying the requirement that imagery be of comparable resolution to current highresolution satellite imagery. Due to the high resolution of the imagery, the positional accuracy attainable, and the convenience with which it is operated, the digital aerial camera system developed is a potentially cost-effective solution for use in the intermediate step of a satellite to ground conservation easement monitoring scheme.

Developing a Geographic Information System Index for Historical Aerial Photographs

This paper describes the creation of a GIS database index to the collection of historical aerial photographs of Connecticut housed in the Map and Geographic Information Center in the Homer Babbidge Library at the University of Connecticut. The index allows patrons to search for scanned aerial photograph images for a specific location across multiple years and to retrieve digital scans from the Library server. Procedures for scanning and georeferencing the images, preparing metadata for the images, and creating the GIS database index are described.

Operator's and organizational maintenance manual : detecting sets, infrared AN/AAS-14A and AN/AAS-14B and transmitter, radio AN/ART-41A (airborne components of surveillance system, infrared AN/UAS-4A) and cable assembly sets, electrical MX-7268/AAS-14A and MX-7270/UAS-4A.

"5 August 1966."

Operator, organizational, DS and GS maintenance manual for Ballistic Aerial Target System (BATS).

Includes index.