Nano-imprinted rear-side diffraction gratings for absorption enhancement in solar cells

As wafer-based solar cells become thinner, light-trapping textures for absorption enhancement will gain in importance. In this work, crystalline silicon wafers were textured with wavelength-scale diffraction grating surface textures by nanoimprint lithography using interference lithography as a mastering technology. This technique allows fine-tailored nanostructures to be realized on large areas with high throughput. Solar cell precursors were fabricated, with the surface textures on the rear side, for optical absorption measurements. Large absorption enhancements are observed in the wavelength range in which the silicon wafer absorbs weakly. It is shown experimentally that bi-periodic crossed gratings perform better than uni-periodic linear gratings. Optical simulations have been made of the fabricated structures, allowing the total absorption to be decomposed into useful absorption in the silicon and parasitic absorption in the rear reflector. Using the calculated silicon absorption, promising absorbed photocurrent density enhancements have been calculated for solar cells employing the nano-textures. Finally, first results are presented of a passivation layer deposition technique that planarizes the rear reflector for the purpose of reducing the parasitic absorption.

New laser-based approaches to improve the passivation and rear contact quality in high effiency crystalline silicon solar cells

Laser processing has been the tool of choice last years to develop improved concepts in contact formation for high efficiency crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells. New concepts based on standard laser fired contacts (LFC) or advanced laser doping (LD) techniques are optimal solutions for both the front and back contacts of a number of structures with growing interest in the c-Si PV industry. Nowadays, substantial efforts are underway to optimize these processes in order to be applied industrially in high efficiency concepts. However a critical issue in these devices is that, most of them, demand a very low thermal input during the fabrication sequence and a minimal damage of the structure during the laser irradiation process. Keeping these two objectives in mind, in this work we discuss the possibility of using laser-based processes to contact the rear side of silicon heterojunction (SHJ) solar cells in an approach fully compatible with the low temperature processing associated to these devices. First we discuss the possibility of using standard LFC techniques in the fabrication of SHJ cells on p-type substrates, studying in detail the effect of the laser wavelength on the contact quality. Secondly, we present an alternative strategy bearing in mind that a real challenge in the rear contact formation is to reduce the damage induced by the laser irradiation. This new approach is based on local laser doping techniques previously developed by our groups, to contact the rear side of p-type c-Si solar cells by means of laser processing before rear metallization of dielectric stacks containing Al2O3. In this work we demonstrate the possibility of using this new approach in SHJ cells with a distinct advantage over other standard LFC techniques.

Assessing the passengers��� perception of implemented advanced management measures in bus service

The aim of this investigation is to evaluate the passenger?s perception of some attributes related to quality of bus services, and how this perception changes with the implementation of different measures. Surveys to passengers riding different bus lines were conducted in two scenarios: before the implementation of the measures and after the measures were implemented. The results of the passenger surveys were statistically analysed; then, an ordered logit model was used to analyse the differences between surveys thanks to the implemented measures. Finally, a factor analysis was done to identify the underlying unobserved factors (latent variables) that the respondents perceived

Evaluación teórico experimental de la influencia de espumas de relleno metálicas como elementos de absorción de energía en perfiles tubulares de pequeño espesor. Su aplicación a vehículos para el transporte colectivo de personas

Los accidentes con implicación de autocares en los que se producen vuelcos ponen de manifiesto la especial agresividad de los mismos, como lo confirman las estadísticas. Como medida para mejorar la seguridad de los Vehículos de Grandes Dimensiones para el Transporte de Pasajeros (V.G.D.T.P.) frente a vuelco fue aprobado por las Naciones Unidas el Reglamento Nº 66 de Ginebra. Este reglamento establece los requisitos mínimos que las estructuras de los vehículos de grandes dimensiones deben cumplir con respecto a vuelco. El reglamento 66 ha supuesto un paso adelante muy importante en relación con la seguridad de los autocares, puesto que especifica por primera vez requerimientos estructurales a este tipo de vehículos, y en general ha supuesto una mejora del vehículo . Por otro lado, a consecuencia de la obligatoriedad de instalación de cinturones de seguridad, existe una unión entre pasajeros y vehículo, pero como no se trata de una unión rígida, hay que contemplar el porcentaje de la masa de los ocupantes que influye en la absorción de energía de la estructura. Además la retención de los ocupantes con cinturones de seguridad influye en la energía a absorber por la estructura del vehículo en dos aspectos, por un lado aumenta la masa del vehículo y en el otro se incrementa la altura el centro de gravedad. Esta situación a conducido a elaborar por parte de las Naciones Unidas la revisión 01 del Reglamento 66, en el que se considera que el 50 % de la masa total de los pasajeros posee una unión rígida con la estructura del vehículo, y por lo tanto debe ser tenida en cuenta si el vehículo posee sistemas de retención. En la situación actual, con limitaciones de peso del vehículo y peso por eje, los elementos de confort, seguridad y espacio para maleteros contribuyen a aumentar el peso del vehículo. Esto unido a la dificultad de introducción de cambios radicales en la concepción actual de fabricación de este tipo de vehículos por suponer unas pérdidas importantes para los fabricantes existentes, tanto en su conocimiento del producto como en su metodología de proceso, conlleva la necesidad cada vez más agobiante de analizar y evaluar otras alternativas estructurales que sin suponer grandes revoluciones a los productos actualmente en fabricación los complementen permitiendo adaptarse a los nuevos requerimientos en seguridad. Recientes desarrollos en la relación costo-beneficio de los procesos para la producción de materiales celulares metálicos de baja densidad, tales como las espumas metálicas, los posiciona como una alternativa de especial interés para la aplicación como elementos de absorción de energía para reforzar estructuras. El relleno con espumas metálicas puede ser más eficiente en términos de optimización de peso comparado con el aumento de espesor de los perfiles estructurales, dado que la absorción de energía se produce en una fracción relativamente pequeña de los perfiles, en las denominadas rótulas plásticas. La aplicación de espumas de relleno metálicas en estructuras de vehículos se está empezando a emplear en determinadas zonas de los vehículos de turismo, siendo totalmente novedosa cualquier intento de aplicación en estructuras de autobuses y autocares. Conforme a lo expuesto, y con el objeto de resolver estos problemas, se ha elaborado el presente trabajo de tesis doctoral, cuyos objetivos son: -Desarrollar un modelo matemático, que permita simular el ensayo de vuelco, considerando la influencia de los ocupantes retenidos con cinturones de seguridad para evaluar su influencia en la absorción de energía de la estructura. -Validar el modelo matemático de vuelco de la estructura mediante ensayos de secciones representativas de la estructura del vehículo y mediante el ensayo de un vehículo completo. -Realizar un estudio de las propiedades de las espumas metálicas que permitan incorporarlas como elemento de absorción de energía en el relleno de componentes de la superestructura de autobuses y autocares. -Desarrollar un modelo matemático para evaluar el aporte del relleno de espuma metálica en la absorción de energía ante solicitaciones por flexión estática y dinámica en componentes de la superestructura de autobuses o autocares. -Realizar un programa de ensayos a flexión estáticos y dinámicos para validar el modelo matemático del aporte del relleno de espuma metálica sobre componentes de la superestructura de autobuses y autocares. . -Incorporar al modelo matemático de vuelco de la estructura, los resultados obtenidos sobre componentes con relleno de espuma metálica, para evaluar el aporte en la absorción de energía. -Validar el modelo de vuelco de la estructura del autobús o autocar con relleno de espuma metálica, mediante ensayos de secciones de carrocería. ABSTRACT Accidents involving buses in which rollovers occur reveal the special aggressiveness thereof, as the statistics prove. As a measure to improve the safety of large vehicles for the transport of passengers to rollover, Regulation 66 of Geneva was approved by the United Nations. This regulation establishes the minimum requirements that structures of large vehicles must comply with respect to rollovers. The regulation 66 has been a major step forward in relation to the safety of coaches, since it specifies structural requirements to such vehicles and has been an improvement for the vehicle. In turn, as a result of compulsory installation of safety belts, there is contact between passengers and vehicle, but as it is not a rigid connection we must contemplate the percentage of the mass of the occupants that impacts on the energy absorption of the structure. Thus, the passengers��� restraining modifies the energy to absorb by the vehicle in two different aspects: On the one hand, it increases the vehicle weight and on the other the height of the center of gravity. This circumstance has taken the United Nations to elaborate Revision 01 of Regulation 66, in which it is considered that the 50 percent of passengers��� mass has a rigid joint together with the vehicle structure and, therefore, the passengers��� mass mentioned above should be highly considered if the vehicle has seat belts. In the present situation, in which limitations in vehicle weight and weight in axles are stricter, elements of comfort, safety and space for baggage are contributing to increase the weight of the vehicle. This coupled with the difficulty of introducing radical changes in the current conception of manufacturing such vehicles pose significant losses for existing manufacturers, both in product knowledge and process methodology, entails the overwhelming need to analyze and evaluate other structural alternatives without assuming relevant modifications on the products manufactured currently allowing them to adapt to the new safety requirements. Recent developments in cost-benefit processes for the production of metallic foams of low density, such as metal foams, place them as an alternative of special interest to be used as energy absorbers to strengthen structures. The filling with metal foams can be more efficient in terms of weight optimization compared with increasing thickness of the structural beams, since the energy absorption occurs in a relatively small fraction of the beams, called plastic hinges. The application of metal filling foams in vehicle structures is beginning to be used in certain areas of passenger cars, being an innovative opportunity in structures for application in buses and coaches. According to the mentioned before, and in order to come forward with a solution, this doctoral thesis has been prepared and its objectives are: - Develop a mathematical model to simulate the rollover test, considering the influence of the occupants held with seat belts to assess their influence on energy absorption structure. - Validate the mathematical model of the structure rollover by testing representative sections of the vehicle structure and by testing a complete vehicle. - Conduct a study of the properties of metal foams as possible incorporation of energy absorbing element in the filler component of the superstructure of buses and coaches. - Elaborate a mathematical model to assess the contribution of the metal foam filling in absorbing energy for static and dynamic bending loads on the components of buses or coaches superstructure. - Conduct a static and dynamic bending test program to validate the mathematical model of contribution of metal foam filling on components of the superstructure of buses and coaches bending. - To incorporate into the mathematical model of structure rollover, the results obtained on components filled with metal foam, to evaluate the contribution to the energy absorption. - Validate the rollover model structure of the bus or coach filled with metal foam through tests of bay sections. The objectives in this thesis have been achieved successfully. The contribution calculation model with metal foam filling in the vehicle structure has revealed that the filling with metal foam is more efficient than increasing thickness of the beams, as demonstrated in the experimental validation of bay sections.

Estudio teórico-experimental para la mejora de la resistencia estructural de autocares basado en el diseño de uniones y asientos

La presente tesis analiza la mejora de la resistencia estructural ante vuelco de autocares enfocando dos vías de actuación: análisis y propuestas de requisitos reglamentarios a nivel europeo y la generación de herramientas que ayuden al diseño y a la verificación de estos requisitos. Los requisitos reglamentarios de resistencia estructural a vuelco contemplan la superestructura de los vehículos pero no para los asientos y sistemas de retención. La influencia de los pasajeros retenidos es superior a la incluida en reglamentación (Reg. 66.01) debiendo considerarse unida al vehículo un porcentaje de la masa de los pasajeros del 91% para cinturón de tres puntos y del 52% para cinturón subabdominal frente al 50% reglamentario para todos los casos. Se ha determinado la cinemática y dinámica del vuelco normativo en sus diferentes fases, formulando las energías en las fases iniciales (hasta el impacto contra el suelo) y determinando la fase final de deformación a través del análisis secuencial de ensayos de módulos reales. Se han determinado los esfuerzos para los asientos que se dividen en dos fases diferenciadas temporalmente: una primera debida a la deformación estructural y una segunda debida al esfuerzo del pasajero retenido que se produce en sentido opuesto (con una deceleración del pasajero en torno a 3.3 g). Se ha caracterizado a través de ensayos cuasi.estáticos el comportamiento de perfiles a flexión y de las uniones estructurales de las principales zonas del vehículo (piso, ventana y techo) verificándose la validez del comportamiento plástico teórico Kecman.García para perfiles de hasta 4 mm de espesor y caracterizando la resistencia y rigidez en la zona elástica de las uniones en función del tipo de refuerzo, materiales y perfiles (análisis de más de 180 probetas). Se ha definido un método de ensayo cuasi.estático para asientos ante esfuerzos de vuelco, ensayándose 19 butacas y determinándose que son resistentes (salvo las uniones a vehículo con pinzas), que son capaces de absorber hasta más de un 17% de la energía absorbida, aunque algunos necesitan optimización para llegar a contribuir en el mecanismo de deformación estructural. Se han generado modelos simplificados para introducir en los modelos barra.rótula plástica: un modelo combinado unión+rótula plástica (que incluye la zona de rigidez determinada en función del tipo de unión) para la superestructura y un modelo simplificado de muelles no.lineales para los asientos. Igualmente se ha generado la metodología de diseño a través de ensayos virtuales con modelos de detalle de elementos finitos tanto de las uniones como de los asientos. Se ha propuesto una metodología de diseño basada en obtener el “mecanismo óptimo de deformación estructural” (elevando la zona de deformación lateral a nivel de ventana y en pilar o en costilla en techo). Para ello se abren dos vías: diseño de la superestructura (selección de perfiles y generación de uniones resistentes) o combinación con asientos (que en lugar de solo resistir las cargas pueden llegar a modificar el mecanismo de deformación). Se ha propuesto una metodología de verificación alternativa al vuelco de vehículo completo que contempla el cálculo cuasi.estático con modelos simplificados barra.rótula plástica más el ensayo de una sección representativa con asientos y utillajes antropomórficos retenidos que permite validar el diseño de las uniones, determinar el porcentaje de energía que debe absorberse por deformación estructural (factor C) y verificar el propio asiento como sistema de retención. ABSTRACT This research analyzes the improvement of the structural strength of buses and coaches under rollover from two perspectives: regulatory requirements at European level and generation of tools that will help to the design and to the verification of requirements. European Regulations about rollover structural strength includes requirements for the superstructure of the vehicles but not about seats, anchorages and restraint systems. The influence of the retained passengers is higher than the one included currently in the Regulations (Reg. 66.01), being needed to consider a 91% of the passenger mass as rigidly joint to the vehicle (for 3 points’ belt, a 52% for 2 points’ belt) instead of the 50% included in the Regulation. Kinematic and dynamic of the normative rollover has been determined from testing of different sections, formulating the energies of the first phases (up to the first impact with the ground) and determining the last deformation phase through sequential analysis of movements and deformations. The efforts due to rollover over the seats have been established, being divided in two different temporal phases: a first one due to the structural deformation of the vehicle and a second one due to the effort of the restrained passenger being this second one in opposite sense (with a passenger deceleration around 3.3 g). From quasi.static testing, the behavior of the structural tubes under flexural loads, including the principal joints in the vehicle (floor, window and roof), the validity of the theoretical plastic behavior according Kecman.García theories have been verified up to 4 mm of thickness. Strength of the joints as well as the stiffness of the elastic zone has been determined in function of main parameters: type of reinforcement, materials and section of the tubes (more than 180 test specimens). It has been defined a quasi.static testing methodology to characterize the seats and restrain system behavior under rollover, testing 19 double seats and concluding that they are resistant (excepting clamping joints), that they can absorb more than a 17 of the absorbed energy, and that some of them need optimization to contribute in the structural deformation mechanism. It has been generated simplified MEF models, to analyze in a beam.plastic hinge model: a combined model joint+plastic hinge (including the stiffness depending on the type of joint) for the superstructure and a simplified model with non.lineal springs to represent the seats. It has been detailed methodologies for detailed design of joints and seats from virtual testing (MEF models). A design methodology based in the “optimized structural deformation mechanism” (increasing the height of deformation of the lateral up to window level) is proposed. Two possibilities are analyzed: design of the superstructure based on the selection of profiles and design of strength joints (were seats only resist the efforts and contribute in the energy absorption) or combination structure.seats, were seats contributes in the deformation mechanism. An alternative methodology to the rollover of a vehicle that includes the quasi.static calculation with simplified models “beam.joint+plastic hinge” plus the testing of a representative section of the vehicle including seats and anthropomorphic ballast restrained by the safety belts is presented. The test of the section allows validate the design of the joints, determine the percentage of energy to be absorbed by structural deformation (factor C) and verify the seat as a retention system.

In Vivo Observations of Myosin II Dynamics Support a Role in Rear RetractionV⃞

To investigate myosin II function in cell movement within a cell mass, we imaged green fluorescent protein-myosin heavy chain (GFP-MHC) cells moving within the tight mound of Dictyostelium discoideum. In the posterior cortex of cells undergoing rotational motion around the center of the mound, GFP-MHC cyclically formed a “C,” which converted to a spot as the cell retracted its rear. Consistent with an important role for myosin in rotation, cells failed to rotate when they lacked the myosin II heavy chain (MHC−) or when they contained predominantly monomeric myosin II (3xAsp). In cells lacking the myosin II regulatory light chain (RLC−), rotation was impaired and eventually ceased. These rotational defects reflect a mechanical problem in the 3xAsp and RLC− cells, because these mutants exhibited proper rotational guidance cues. MHC− cells exhibited disorganized and erratic rotational guidance cues, suggesting a requirement for the MHC in organizing these signals. However, the MHC− cells also exhibited mechanical defects in rotation, because they still moved aberrantly when seeded into wild-type mounds with proper rotational guidance cues. The mechanical defects in rotation may be mediated by the C-to-spot, because RLC− cells exhibited a defective C-to-spot, including a slower C-to-spot transition, consistent with this mutant’s slower rotational velocity.