Etiology and severity of community acquired pneumonia in children from Uruguay: a 4-year study

The 4-year study (1987-1990) covered the major clinical-epidemiological characteristics of pneumonia in children as diagnosed at the emergency service of the Children's Hospital, as well as etiologies, and factors involved in the most severe cases. Etiology was determined in 47.7% of the 541 pneumonia cases, involving 283 pathogens of which 38.6% were viruses and 12.6% bacteria. Viral and mixed etiologies were more frequent in children under 12 months of age. Bacteria predominated in ages between 6 and 23 months. Among the viruses, respiratory syncytial virus predominated (66%). The bacterial pneumonias accounted for 12.2% of the recognized etiologies. The most important bacterial agents were S. pneumoniae (64%) and H. influenzae (19%). H. influenzae and mixed infections had a relevant participation during the 1988 season, pointing to annual variations in the relative participation of pathogens and its possible implication in severity of diseases. Correlation of severity and increased percentage of etiological diagnosis was assessed: patients with respiratory rates over 70 rpm, or pleural effusion and/or extensive pulmonary parenchyma compromise yielded higher positive laboratory results. Various individual and family risk factors were recognized when comparing pneumonia children with healthy controls.

Parâmetros associados a sibilância recorrente após bronquite aguda

RESUMO Introdução: a bronquiolite aguda afecta 30 a 60% das crianças saudáveis até ao terceiro aniversário. Destas, 50% evoluem para sibilância recorrente, com consequências pessoais, familiares e sociais relevantes. Objectivos: identificação de parâmetros clínicos e laboratoriais associados à sibilância recorrente em crianças saudáveis. A detecção da actividade local de quatro citocinas intervenientes nas vias imunológicas Th1 ou Th2 permitiu, gualmente, o estudo do respectivo comportamento em função dos referidos parâmetros. Material e Métodos: estudo prospectivo de coorte, efectuado no serviço de urgência pediátrica do HSFX no Inverno 2004/2005. Recrutada amostra de conveniência de 188 lactentes de idade inferior a 24 meses e diagnóstico de bronquiolite aguda. Excluídos portadores de doença crónica, ex-prematuros e os doentes sujeitos a corticoterapia nas duas semanas anteriores. A todos foi feito questionário padronizado, exame clínico e estratificação da gravidade através de índice validado. Na mucosa nasal, foram pesquisados Ag víricos e estudada a expressão génica de quatro citocinas - representativas da via Th1 (IFN-g e IL-12) ou Th2 (IL-4 e IL-13). Esta determinação foi efectuada por RT-PCR, no Laboratório de Biologia Molecular do Centro de Histocompatibilidade do Sul. Durante o seguimento, em consulta de pneumologia pediátrica até à idade de 36 meses, foram excluídos os seguintes casos: patologia anatómica ou funcional que justificasse sibilância recorrente, valores totais de IgE elevados, Phadiatop® positivo ou défice de IgG, IgA ou IgM. Os resultados foram estudados por estatística descritiva, análise univariada e multivariada. Foi considerado com significado estatístico, em todas as análises, o valor de p < 0,05. Resultados: das 188 crianças recrutadas, foram excluídas 36 (principalmente por identificação de outras causas de sibilância recorrente). Da amostra final de 152 doentes, 76 (50%) foram considerados sibilantes e 76 não sibilantes. Os seguintes parâmetros à entrada relacioram-se com a evolução para sibilância recorrente: idade inferior a 6 meses (OR: 3,8; IC95% 1,8-9,1); exposição ao fumo de tabaco na vida intrauterina (OR: 2,5; IC95% 1,2-5,2) ou após o nascimento (OR: 2,4; IC95% 1,0-5,8); atopia materna (OR: 4,0; IC95% 1,5-10,3); maior gravidade (OR: 1,2; IC95% 1,1-1,4); apirexia (OR: 4,7; IC95% 1,8-11,8); identificação de vírus (OR: 3,5; IC95% 1,4-8,7); predomínio imunitário de tipo Th2 em lactentes com idade superior a seis meses (OR:1,3; IC95% 1,0-1,7). Verificou-se predomínio Th1 na mucosa nasal das crianças com irmãos ou que frequentavam o infantário (OR: 3,1; IC95% 1,4-6,5); nas amamentadas (OR: 1,2; IC95% 1,1-1,4) e naquelas em que se identificaram Ag víricos (OR: 4,0; IC95% 1,3-11,9). O contacto com fumo de tabaco no domicílio foi o determinante mais importante de predomínio Th2 (OR: 2,3; IC95% 1,1-4,7). Discussão e Conclusões: Foram considerados factores de risco para sibilância recorrente em lactentes saudáveis: idade inferior no momento do primeiro episódio de bronquiolite; exposição passiva (antenatal ou pós-natal) ao fumo de tabaco;antecedentes maternos de atopia; primeiro episódio com maior gravidade, sem febre e com dentificação de Ag víricos nas secreções nasais. Os resultados do presente estudo reforçam as recomendações usuais de aleitamento materno, limitação de contactos sociais em lactentes e evicção tabágica durante a gravidez e após o nascimento.

Estimativa da Eficiência do Uso de Palivizumab na Prevenção de Hospitalizações por Infecção por Vírus Sincicial Respiratório numa Coorte de Prematuros

As recomendações da Secção de Neonatologia da Sociedade Portuguesa de Pediatria (SNN-SPP) prevêem a profilaxia medicamentosa da infecção por vírus sincicial respiratório (VSR) com palivizumab em idades gestacionais (IG)inferiores a 30 semanas. Alguns Hospitais de Apoio Perinatal Diferenciado seguem práticas mais restritas, limitando o seu uso à extrema prematuridade e/ou a prematuros com doença pulmonar crónica da prematuridade. Objectivos. Estimar a relação custo-eficácia da profilaxia com palivizumab segundo as recomendações da SNN-SPP, através da aplicação de um modelo teórico a uma coorte real de prematuros. Metodologia. Estudo prospectivo histórico. Coorte de crianças nascidas num Hospital de Apoio Perinatal Diferenciado entre 1/10/2002 e 30/04/2005 com IG ² 35 semanas. Considerou- se caso o internamento no mesmo hospital por bronquiolite por VSR nas épocas 2003/04 e 2004/05. Baseando-nos nas recomendações SNN-SPP e no Number Needed to Treat dos estudos IMpact e IRIS, estimámos a redução prevista nas taxas de hospitalização caso a profilaxia fosse efectuada, comparando os seus custos com a redução de custos de hospitalização. Resultados. Dos 356 recém-nascidos elegíveis, nove foram excluídos por óbito e dois por administração de palivizumab. A taxa de hospitalização por bronquiolite por VSR nas 345 crianças incluídas foi 9,3%. No subgrupo com indicação para profilaxia (26 crianças) a taxa de hospitalização foi 15,4%, com uma estimativa de custo médio de hospitalização de Û 6.542,35. Não ocorreu nenhuma morte por infecção por VSR. A redução estimável no número de hospitalizações sob profilaxia seria de 1,5 (IMpact) ou 2,4 (IRIS). O custo necessário para prevenir um internamento seria de Û 26.263,11 na melhor estimativa e Û 57.716,26 na pior estimativa. Conclusão. Com o modelo desenvolvido, não conseguimos demonstrar nesta coorte uma estimativa de relação custo-eficácia favorável à administração de Palivizumab segundo recomendações da SNN-SPP.

Improving Influenza Surveillance in Portuguese Preschool Children by Parents' Report

Influenza surveillance is usually based on nationally organized sentinel networks of physicians and on hospital reports. This study aimed to test a different report system, based on parents' phone contact to the research team and in home collection of samples by a dedicated team. The identification of influenza and other respiratory viruses in children who attended a Hospital Emergency Department was also recorded. Real-time PCR and reverse transcription PCR were performed for influenza A and B, parainfluenza 1-4, adenovirus, human metapneumovirus, respiratory syncytial virus A and B, rhinovirus, enterovirus, group 1 coronaviruses, group 2 coronaviruses, and human bocavirus. One hundred children were included, 64 from the day care centers and 36 from the Hospital. Overall, 79 samples were positive for at least one respiratory virus. Influenza A (H3) was the virus most frequently detected: 25 cases, 20 of these in children under 5 years of age (ten from day care centers and ten who went to the hospital) which was higher than those reported by the National Influenza Surveillance Programme for this age. CONCLUSION: The results obtained in this study suggest that a surveillance system based on parents' reports could complement the implanted system of the National Influenza Surveillance Programme.

Relationship among epidemiological parameters of six childhood infections in a non-immunized Brazilian community

Epidemiological parameters, such as age-dependent force of infection and average age at infection () were estimated for rubella, varicella, rotavirus A, respiratory syncytial virus, hepatitis A and parvovirus B19 infections for a non-immunized Brazilian community, using the same sera samples. The for the aforementioned diseases were 8.45 years (yr) [95% CI: (7.23, 9.48) yr], 3.90 yr [95% CI: (3.51, 4.28) yr], 1.03 yr [95% CI: (0.96, 1.09) yr], 1.58 yr [95% CI: (1.39, 1.79) yr], 7.17 yr [95% CI: (6.48, 7.80) yr] and 7.43 yr [95% CI: (5.68, 9.59) yr], respectively. The differences between average ages could be explained by factors such as differences in the effectiveness of the protection conferred to newborns by maternally derived antibodies, competition between virus species and age-dependent host susceptibility. Our seroprevalence data may illustrate a case of the above-mentioned mechanisms working together within the same population.

Viral aetiology of common colds of outpatient children at primary care level and the use of antibiotics

Although antibiotics are ineffective against viral respiratory infections, studies have shown high rates of prescriptions worldwide. We conducted a study in Brazil to determine the viral aetiologies of common colds in children and to describe the use of antibiotics for these patients. Children up to 12 years with common colds were enrolled from March 2008-February 2009 at a primary care level facility and followed by regular telephone calls and medical consultations. A nasopharyngeal wash was obtained at enrollment and studied by direct fluorescence assay and polymerase chain reaction for nine different types of virus. A sample of 134 patients was obtained, median age 2.9 years (0.1-11.2 y). Respiratory viruses were detected in 73.9% (99/134) with a coinfection rate of 30.3% (30/99). Rhinovirus was the most frequent virus (53/134; 39.6%), followed by influenza (33/134; 24.6%) and respiratory syncytial virus (8/134; 13.4%). Antibiotic prescription rate was 39.6% (53/134) and 69.8% (37/53) were considered inappropriate. Patients with influenza infection received antibiotics inappropriately in a greater proportion of cases when compared to respiratory syncytial virus and rhinovirus infections (p = 0.016). The rate of inappropriate use of antibiotics was very high and patients with influenza virus infection were prescribed antibiotics inappropriately in a greater proportion of cases.

Chest physiotherapy using passive expiratory techniques does not reduce bronchiolitis severity: a randomised controlled trial.

Chest physiotherapy (CP) using passive expiratory manoeuvres is widely used in Western Europe for the treatment of bronchiolitis, despite lacking evidence for its efficacy. We undertook an open randomised trial to evaluate the effectiveness of CP in infants hospitalised for bronchiolitis by comparing the time to clinical stability, the daily improvement of a severity score and the occurrence of complications between patients with and without CP. Children <1 year admitted for bronchiolitis in a tertiary hospital during two consecutive respiratory syncytial virus seasons were randomised to group 1 with CP (prolonged slow expiratory technique, slow accelerated expiratory flow, rarely induced cough) or group 2 without CP. All children received standard care (rhinopharyngeal suctioning, minimal handling, oxygen for saturation ≥92%, fractionated meals). Ninety-nine eligible children (mean age, 3.9 months), 50 in group 1 and 49 in group 2, with similar baseline variables and clinical severity at admission. Time to clinical stability, assessed as primary outcome, was similar for both groups (2.9 ± 2.1 vs. 3.2 ± 2.8 days, P = 0.45). The rate of improvement of a clinical and respiratory score, defined as secondary outcome, only showed a slightly faster improvement of the respiratory score in the intervention group when including stethoacoustic properties (P = 0.044). Complications were rare but occurred more frequently, although not significantly (P = 0.21), in the control arm. In conclusion, this study shows the absence of effectiveness of CP using passive expiratory techniques in infants hospitalised for bronchiolitis. It seems justified to recommend against the routine use of CP in these patients.

Pédiatrie [Current progress in pediatrics: obesity and diagnosis approach to the febrile child]

The literature shows that obesity is a public health problem concerning especially the general paediatrician. While prevention has probably more chances of success than treatment, drugs or, in case of failure, the surgical approach are reserved for extreme cases. In the domain of infectiology the different laboratory tests allow only partially to diagnose severe infections. But in the context of a potential influenza pandemic rapid virologic tests become more and more important. They allow a more precise diagnosis and a reduction of hospitalisations and of antibiotic prescriptions. A review of the north American experience with the pneumococal vaccine shows that the heptavalent vaccine will change our approach in infants with fever in whom we suspect a severe infection.

Cross-neutralization of four paramyxoviruses by a human monoclonal antibody.

Broadly neutralizing antibodies reactive against most and even all variants of the same viral species have been described for influenza and HIV-1 (ref. 1). However, whether a neutralizing antibody could have the breadth of range to target different viral species was unknown. Human respiratory syncytial virus (HRSV) and human metapneumovirus (HMPV) are common pathogens that cause severe disease in premature newborns, hospitalized children and immune-compromised patients, and play a role in asthma exacerbations. Although antisera generated against either HRSV or HMPV are not cross-neutralizing, we speculated that, because of the repeated exposure to these viruses, cross-neutralizing antibodies may be selected in some individuals. Here we describe a human monoclonal antibody (MPE8) that potently cross-neutralizes HRSV and HMPV as well as two animal paramyxoviruses: bovine RSV (BRSV) and pneumonia virus of mice (PVM). In its germline configuration, MPE8 is HRSV-specific and its breadth is achieved by somatic mutations in the light chain variable region. MPE8 did not result in the selection of viral escape mutants that evaded antibody targeting and showed potent prophylactic efficacy in animal models of HRSV and HMPV infection, as well as prophylactic and therapeutic efficacy in the more relevant model of lethal PVM infection. The core epitope of MPE8 was mapped on two highly conserved anti-parallel β-strands on the pre-fusion viral F protein, which are rearranged in the post-fusion F protein conformation. Twenty-six out of the thirty HRSV-specific neutralizing antibodies isolated were also found to be specific for the pre-fusion F protein. Taken together, these results indicate that MPE8 might be used for the prophylaxis and therapy of severe HRSV and HMPV infections and identify the pre-fusion F protein as a candidate HRSV vaccine.

Polymorphisms in toll-like receptor 4 and toll-like receptor 9 influence viral load in a seroincident cohort of HIV-1-infected individuals.

OBJECTIVES: Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are innate immune sensors that are integral to resisting chronic and opportunistic infections. Mounting evidence implicates TLR polymorphisms in susceptibilities to various infectious diseases, including HIV-1. We investigated the impact of TLR single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on clinical outcome in a seroincident cohort of HIV-1-infected volunteers. DESIGN: We analyzed TLR SNPs in 201 antiretroviral treatment-naive HIV-1-infected volunteers from a longitudinal seroincident cohort with regular follow-up intervals (median follow-up 4.2 years, interquartile range 4.4). Participants were stratified into two groups according to either disease progression, defined as peripheral blood CD4(+) T-cell decline over time, or peak and setpoint viral load. METHODS: Haplotype tagging SNPs from TLR2, TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 were detected by mass array genotyping, and CD4(+) T-cell counts and viral load measurements were determined prior to antiretroviral therapy initiation. The association of TLR haplotypes with viral load and rapid progression was assessed by multivariate regression models using age and sex as covariates. RESULTS: Two TLR4 SNPs in strong linkage disequilibrium [1063 A/G (D299G) and 1363 C/T (T399I)] were more frequent among individuals with high peak viral load compared with low/moderate peak viral load (odds ratio 6.65, 95% confidence interval 2.19-20.46, P < 0.001; adjusted P = 0.002 for 1063 A/G). In addition, a TLR9 SNP previously associated with slow progression was found less frequently among individuals with high viral setpoint compared with low/moderate setpoint (odds ratio 0.29, 95% confidence interval 0.13-0.65, P = 0.003, adjusted P = 0.04). CONCLUSION: This study suggests a potentially new role for TLR4 polymorphisms in HIV-1 peak viral load and confirms a role for TLR9 polymorphisms in disease progression.

Development of a real-time PCR for the specific detection of Waddlia chondrophila in clinical samples.

Waddlia chondrophila is considered as an emerging human pathogen likely involved in miscarriage and lower respiratory tract infections. Given the low sensitivity of cell culture to recover such an obligate intracellular bacteria, molecular-based diagnostic approaches are warranted. We thus developed a real-time PCR that amplifies Waddlia chondrophila DNA. Specific primers and probe were selected to target the 16S rRNA gene. The PCR specifically amplified W. chondrophila but did not amplify other related-bacteria such as Parachlamydia acanthamoebae, Simkania negevensis and Chlamydia pneumoniae. The PCR exhibited a good intra-run and inter-run reproducibility and a sensitivity of less than ten copies of the positive control. This real-time PCR was then applied to 32 nasopharyngeal aspirates taken from children with bronchiolitis not due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Three samples revealed to be Waddlia positive, suggesting a possible role of this Chlamydia-related bacteria in this setting.

Differentiation towards regulatory DC is maintained during RSV infection in airway epithelial cells

Airway epithelial cells have been shown to drive differentiation of monocytes into dendritic cells (DC) with suppressive phenotype. In this study we investigated the impact of virus-induced inflammatory mediator production on DC development. Monocyte differentiation into functional DC, as reflected by the expression of CD11c, CD123, BDCA-4 and DC-SIGN and the capacity to activate T cells, was similar for respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)- and mock-infected BEAS-2B and A549 cells. RSV-conditioned culture media resulted in a partially mature DC phenotype, but failed to upregulate CD80, CD83, CD86 and CCR7 and failed to release pro-inflammatory mediators upon TLR triggering. Nevertheless, these DCs were able to maintain an antiviral response by the release of type I IFN. Collectively, these data indicate that the airway epithelium maintains an important suppressive DC phenotype under inflammatory conditions induced by RSV infection.

Early life host-microbe interactions : implications for the development of asthma

Plus de 300 millions de personnes dans le monde souffrent de l'asthme. L'asthme est une maladie inflammatoire chronique des voies respiratoires caractérisée par des symptômes variables et récurrents, une obstruction bronchique réversible et des bronchospasmes. Les symptômes communs incluent une respiration sifflante, de la toux, une oppression thoracique et de la dyspnée. Normalement, la maladie commence à se manifester pendant l'enfance. Pourtant, facteurs génétiques héréditaires et événements environnementaux survenant au cours de la petite enfance sont responsables de sa manifestation, indiquant que le développement de la maladie est lié à des événements qui se produisent bien avant son déclenchement. L'infection respiratoire virale aiguë constitue un de ces facteurs environnementaux jouant un rôle prépondérant. Un des virus les plus communs est le virus respiratoire syncytial (VRS), qui infecte presque tous les enfants avant l'âge de 2 ans. Ce virus, s'il infecte des tout-petits, peut en effet provoquer une bronchiolite aiguë, un phénomène qui a été épidémiologiquement lié à l'apparition d'asthme plus tard dans la vie. Dans le premier chapitre de cette thèse, nous avons étudié, chez la souris, comment une infection avec le VRS influe sur l'asthme allergique. Nous avons constaté que seule l'infection des souris à l'état de nouveau-né prédispose à un asthme allergique plus sévère chez l'adulte. En effet, si des souris adultes étaient infectées, elles étaient protégées contre l'apparition des symptômes asthmatiques. Cela nous a mené à investiguer les mécanismes immunitaires spécifiques durant cette courte période du début de la vie. Deux événements se produisent en parallèle au cours de la petite enfance: (1) Le système immunitaire, qui est encore immature immédiatement après la naissance, commence à se développer pour être en mesure de jouer son rôle protecteur contre les agents infectieux. (2) Le corps, y compris les poumons, est colonisé par des bactéries commensales, qui vivent en symbiose avec leur hôte humain. Chez l'adulte, ces bactéries sont connues pour influencer notre système immunitaire, l'éduquant à générer des réponses immunitaires adéquates et efficaces. Dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons voulu déterminer si ces bactéries symbiotiques étaient impliquées dans l'éducation du système immunitaire du nouveau-né et quelles conséquences cela pourrait avoir sur les réponses immunitaires engendrées par ce dernier. Pour étudier l'effet de ces bactéries symbiotiques, nous avons utilisé des souris stériles, en d'autres termes des souris qui n'hébergent pas ces bactéries symbiotiques. En comparant ces souris stériles à des souris qui abritent une flore microbienne normale, nous avons constaté que les bactéries symbiotiques sont vitales pour la bonne éducation du système immunitaire du nouveau-né. Nous avons démontré que le contact direct des cellules immunitaires avec la flore microbienne dans les poumons modifie le phénotype de ces cellules immunitaires, ce qui change probablement leur réaction au cours de réponses immunitaires. Nous avons donc vérifié si l'éducation immunitaire induite par cette microflore est importante pour prévenir les maladies pulmonaires telles que l'asthme allergique, affections qui sont causées par une réaction excessive du système immunitaire envers des agents inoffensifs. En effet, nous avons observé que le processus de maturation du système immunitaire néonatal, lequel a été déclenché et façonné par la flore microbienne, est important pour éviter une réaction asthmatique exagérée chez la souris adulte. Ce phénomène est dû aux lymphocytes T régulateurs. Ces cellules, dont la présence est induite dans les poumons, ont des capacités immunosuppressives et atténuent donc les réponses immunitaires pour prévenir une inflammation excessive. En conclusion, nous avons montré dans cette thèse que la colonisation par des bactéries symbiotiques tôt dans la vie est un événement décisif pour la maturation du système immunitaire et pour prévenir le développement de l'asthme. Dans l'avenir, il serait intéressant de découvrir quelles bactéries sont présentes dans les poumons du nouveau-né et lesquelles sont directement impliquées dans ce processus de maturation immunitaire. Une prochaine étape serait alors de favoriser la présence de ces bactéries au début de la vie au moyen d'un traitement avec des agents pré- ou probiotiques, ce qui pourrait éventuellement contribuer à une prévention précoce du développement de l'asthme. -- L'asthme est une maladie chronique inflammatoire des voies respiratoires affectant près de 300 millions d'individus dans le monde. Bien que les traits caractéristiques du phénotype asthmatique s'établissent généralement pendant l'enfance, la prédisposition au développement de la maladie est intimement liée à des événements survenant durant la petite enfance, comme le sont par exemple les infections virales respiratoires aiguës. Les mécanismes par lesquels ces événements provoquent un dysfonctionnement immunitaire et, par conséquent, conduisent au développement de l'asthme n'ont pas encore été entièrement décelés. La dysbiose du microbiote des voies respiratoires a été récemment associes au phénotype asthmatique, touisTcis, la cuûoboiatioî! d un lien cause à effet entre la dysbiose microbienne et l'apparition des symptômes asthmatiques reste à être démontrée. Dans cette thèse, nous avons étudié le rôle que joue la colonisation microbienne des voies respiratoires au cours de la petite enfance dans la maturation du système immunitaire ainsi que dans la protection contre l'inflammation pulmonaire de type allergique. Nous avons de surcroît développé un modèle expérimental pour comprendre comment les infections virales respiratoires interfèrent avec ce processus. Dans la première partie de cette thèse, nous avons évalué l'effet d'infections causées par le virus respiratoire syncytial (VRS) sur le développement de l'asthme. En accord avec des études épidémiologiques, nous avons constaté qu'une infection au VRS lors de la période néonatale exacerbait les réponses pulmonaires allergiques ultérieures. Par contraste, une infection à l'âge adulte avait un effet protecteur. Nous avons ainsi démontré que l'influence d'une infection à VRS sur l'issue et la sévérité de l'asthme respiratoire était strictement dépendante de l'âge. Ces résultats nous ont conduit à émettre l'hypothèse que des différences dans le phénotype homéostatique des cellules immunitaires pourraient être responsables de ces disparités liées à l'âge. Par conséquent, dans la deuxième partie de cette thèse, nous avons suivi et caractérisé le processus de maturation des cellules immunitaires dans les poumons du nouveau-né en condition d'homéostasie. Nous avons découvert que leur phénotype change de façon dynamique pendant le développement néonatal et que la colonisation par des microbes était déterminante pour la maturation des cellules immunitaires dans les poumons. Dans la dernière partie de cette thèse, nous avons démontré comment le microbiote pulmonaire éduque le développement immunitaire durant la période néonatale l'orientant de manière à induire une tolérance face aux aéroallergènes. Nous avons découvert que la colonisation microbienne des voies respiratoires provoque une expression transitoire de PD-L1 sur les cellules dendritiques (CD) pulmonaires du type CD11b+ dans les deux premières semaines de la vie. Cet événement engendre par la suite la génération de lymphocytes T régulateurs (TREG) dans les poumons, lesquels sont responsables de la protection contre une réponse inflammatoire allergique exagérée chez la souris adulte. Par conséquent, nous proposons un rôle pivot de la maturation immunitaire induite par le microbiote pulmonaire dans l'établissement de la tolérance aux aéroallergènes. En conclusion, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse fournissent de nouveaux indices révélant comment des événements se produisant lors de la petite enfance peuvent façonner les réponses du système immunitaire dirigées contre les allergènes et soulignent le rôle central joué par le microbiote pulmonaire dans l'édification d'une réponse immunitaire équilibrée. En résumé, notre travail met en évidence le microbiote pulmonaire comme étant une cible potentielle pour la prévention de certaines maladies respiratoires. -- Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disorder of the respiratory tract and affects approximately 300 million individuals world-wide. Although the asthmatic phenotype commonly establishes during childhood, predisposition towards disease development has been linked to events in early infancy, such as severe respiratory viral infections. However, the mechanisms by which these events cause immune dysfunction and, therefore, lead to the development of asthma have yet to be fully deciphered. Dysbiosis of the airway microbiota has recently been associated with the asthmatic phenotype; however, conclusive evidence for a causal link between microbial dysbiosis in the ail ways and asthma development is still missing. In this thesis we investigated the role of early-life microbial airway colonization in immune maturation and the protection against allergic airway inflammation and established an experimental model to address how respiratory viral infections interfere in this process. In the first part of this thesis we evaluated the effect of Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections on the development of asthma. In concurrence with epidemiological studies, we found that neonatal infection exacerbated subsequent allergic airway inflammation. In contrast, adult infection was protective in the same context. Thus, we could demonstrate that the influence of RSV infection on subsequent allergic airway responses was strictly age-dependent. These findings led us to the hypothesis that differences in the homeostatic phenotype of immune cells could be responsible for the age-related disparities seen within the context of RSV. Therefore, in a second part of this thesis, we followed the process of homeostatic immune cell maturation in the neonatal lung. Immune cell phenotypes changed dynamically during neonatal development. We discovered that the colonization with microbes was central to the maturation of immune cells in the lung. In the last part of this thesis, we demonstrated how microbiota-driven immune development during the neonatal period induces tolerance against aeroallergens. We discovered that microbial colonization led to a transient programmed death-ligand (PD-L) 1 expression on CD11b+ pulmonary dendritic cells (DCs) during the first two weeks of life. This in turn induced regulatory T (TREG) cells in the lung, which were responsible for the protection against exaggerated allergic airway inflammation in adult mice. Thus, we propose a key role for microbiota-driven immune maturation in the establishment of tolerance towards aeroallergens. In conclusion, the results presented in this thesis provide new insights into how early-life events shape pulmonary immune responses towards allergens and suggest the airway microbiota as a key player in establishing a balanced immune response. Overall, our work highlights the airway microbiota as potential target for disease prevention.

Pienen lapsen uloshengitysvaikeus

Tausta: Uloshengitysvaikeus on pienten lasten tavallinen sairaus. Monissa tutkimuksissa sen yleisimmäksi aiheuttajaksi on todettu respiratory syncytial virus infektio (RSV). Muiden virusten ja bakteereiden merkitys on vähemmän tunnettu. Pienten lasten uloshengitysvaikeuden hoito on vakiintumaton. Systeemisen prednisolonihoidon tehoa uloshengitysvaikeuksissa ei ole tutkittu muiden virusinfektioiden kuin RSV:n yhteydessä. Tavoitteet: Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää lasten sairaalahoitoa edellyttäneen uloshengitysvaikeuden virusetiologia ja siihen liittyvät bakteeri-infektiot sekä systeemisen prednisolonihoidon teho suhteessa eri viruksiin. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli etsiä toistuvan uloshengitysvaikeuden riskitekijöitä ja selvittää prednisolonin teho riskiryhmiin kuuluvilla lapsilla. Menetelmät: Vuosien 2000–2002 aikana selvitettiin Turun yliopistollisessa keskussairaalassa uloshengitysvaikeuden vuoksi hoidetun 293 iältään 3 kuukauden - 16 vuotiaan lapsen tautietiologia. Nenänielun imulimanäytteestä tutkittiin viruksia viljelyn, antigeenin osoituksen sekä genomin monistustekniikan (PCR) avulla. Taudin akuutissa ja toipilasvaiheessa analysoitiin seeruminäytteistä vasta-ainepitoisuudet viruksia ja bakteereita vastaan. Bakteeri-infektioita etsittiin myös kliinisten, hematologisten ja radiologisten tutkimusten avulla. Satunnaistetulla, kaksoissokolla lumekontrolloidulla tutkimuksella selvitettiin prednisolonin kliinistä tehoa RSV- ja rinovirusinfektioissa alle 3 vuoden ikäisillä lapsilla. Toistuvan uloshengitysvaikeuden esiintymistä selvitettiin seuraamalla vuoden ajan 118 lasta, joilla oli ollut ensimmäinen uloshengitysvaikeuskohtaus. Tulokset: Todennäköinen uloshengitysvaikeuden aiheuttava virus löytyi 88 %:lta lapsista. Yleisimmät virukset olivat RSV (27 %) ja rinovirus (24 %). Kahden tai kolmen viruksen infektio todettiin 19 %:lla lapsista. Yleisin todennäköinen bakteeri-infektio oli akuutti välikorvatulehdus, joka todettiin 44 %:lla lapsista. Bakteeri-infektion serologinen osoitus saatiin 18 %:lla lapsista. Tavallisimmat bakteerit olivat Streptococcus pneumoniae (8 %) ja Mycoplasma pneumoniae (5 %). Nenän sivuontelotulehdus todettiin 17 %:lla ja alveolaarinen keuhkokuume 3 %:lla lapsista. Prednisolonihoito ei vaikuttanut lasten sairaalahoitoajan pituuteen, mutta se vähensi uusien kohtausten määrää lapsilla, joilla oli rinovirusinfektio ja sairaalaan tulohetkellä veren eosinofiilisten solujen määrä  0,2 • 109/l. Toistuvan uloshengitysvaikeuden riskitekijöitä olivat alle vuoden ikä, atopia ja äidin astma. Prednisoloni vähensi merkitsevästi toistuvan uloshengitysvaikeuden esiintymistä lapsilla, joilla oli rinovirusinfektio (HR = 0,19; 95 %:n LV, 0,05 – 0,71) tai lääkärin toteama ihottuma (0,15; 95 %:n LV, 0,04 – 0,63). Päätelmät: Lähes kaikilla lapsilla on todettavissa virusinfektio uloshengitysvaikeuden aikana. Tavallisin pienten lasten kliininen bakteerikomplikaatio on akuutti välikorvatulehdus. Prednisolonihoidolla ei ole vaikutusta sairaalahoidon pituuteen, mutta se näyttäisi vähentävän uusien kohtausten esiintymistä rinoviruspositiivisilla ja ihottumaisilla lapsilla.