General practitioners learning qualitative research: A case study of postgraduate education

Background Qualitative research is increasingly being recognised as a vital aspect of primary healthcare research. Teaching and learning how to conduct qualitative research is especially important for general practitioners and other clinicians in the professional educational setting. This article examines a case study of postgraduate professional education in qualitative research for clinicians, for the purpose of enabling a robust discussion around teaching and learning in medicine and the health sciences. Method A series of three workshops was delivered for primary healthcare academics. The workshops were evaluated using a quantitative survey and qualitative free-text responses to enable descriptive analyses. Results Participants found qualitative philosophy and theory the most difficult areas to engage with, and learning qualitative coding and analysis was considered the easiest to learn. Discussion Key elements for successful teaching were identified, including the use of adult learning principles, the value of an experienced facilitator and an awareness of the impact of clinical subcultures on learning.

Factors related to seat belt use : A Turkish case

Seat belts are effective safety devices used to protect car occupants from severe injuries and fatalities during road vehicle accidents. Despite the proven effectiveness of seat belts, seat belt use rates are quite low, especially in developing countries, such as Turkey. The general aim of the present study was to investigate a large variety of factors related to seat belt use among Turkish car occupants using different perspectives and methods and therefore, to contribute to the design of effective seat belt use interventions for increasing seat belt use rates in Turkey. Five sub-studies were conducted within the present study. In the first sub-study, environmental (e.g., road type) and psycho-social factors (e.g., belt use by other car occupants) related to the seat belt use of front-seat occupants were investigated using observation techniques. Being male, of a young age, and traveling on city roads were the main factors negatively related to seat belt use. Furthermore, seat belt use by the drivers and front-seat passengers was highly correlated and a significant predictors of each other. In the second sub-study, the motivations of the car occupants for seat belt use and non-use were investigated using interview techniques. Situational conditions, such as traveling on city roads and for short distances, and not believing in the effectiveness and relevance of seat belt use for safety, were the most frequently reported reasons for not using a seat belt. Safety, habit and avoiding punishment were among the most frequently reported reasons for using a seat belt. In the third sub-study, the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and the Health Belief Model (HBM) were applied to seat belt use using Structural Equation Modeling techniques. The TPB model showed a good fit to the data, whereas the HBM showed a poor fit to the data. Within the TPB model, attitude and subjective norm were significant predictors of intentions to use a seat belt on both urban and rural roads. In the fourth sub-study, seat belt use frequency and motivations for seat belt use among taxi drivers were investigated and compared between free-time and work-time driving using a survey. The results showed that taxi drivers used seat belts more when driving a private car in their free-times compared to when driving a taxi during their work-times. The lack of a legal obligation to use a seat belt in city traffic and fear of being attacked or robbed by the passengers were found as two specific reasons for not using a seat belt when driving a taxi. Lastly, in the fifth sub-study, the relationship of seat belt use to driver and health behaviors was investigated using a survey. Although seat belt use was related both to health and driver behaviors, factor analysis results showed that it grouped with driver behaviors. Based on the results of the sub-studies, a tentative empirical model showing different predictors of seat belt use was proposed. According to the model, safety and normative motivations and perceived physical barriers related to seat belt use are the three important predictors of seat belt use. Keywords: Seat belt use; environmental factors; psycho-social factors; safety and normative motivations; the Theory of Planned Behavior; the Health Belief Model; health behaviors; driver behaviors; front-seat occupants; taxi drivers; Turkey.

“We don’t tell people what to do”: Ethical practice and Indigenous health promotion

Health promotion aspires to work in empowering, participatory ways, with the goal of supporting people to increase control over their health. However, buried in this goal is an ethical tension: while increasing people’s autonomy, health promotion also imposes a particular, health promotion-sanctioned version of what is good. This tension positions practitioners precariously, where the ethos of empowerment risks increasing health promotion’s paternalistic control over people, rather than people’s control over their own health. Here in we argue that this ethical tension is amplified in Indigenous Australia, where colonial processes of control over Indigenous lands, lives and cultures are indistinguishable from contemporary health promotion ‘interventions’. Moreover, the potential stigmatisation produced in any paternalistic acts ‘done for their own good’ cannot be assumed to have evaporated within the self-proclaimed ‘empowering’ narratives of health promotion. This issue’s guest editor’s call for health promotion to engage ‘with politics and with philosophical ideas about the state and the citizen’ is particularly relevant in an Indigenous Australian context. Indigenous Australians continue to experience health promotion as a moral project of control through intervention, which contradicts health promotion’s central goal of empowerment. Therefore, Indigenous health promotion is an invaluable site for discussion and analysis of health promotion’s broader ethical tensions. Given the persistent and alarming Indigenous health inequalities, this paper calls for systematic ethical reflection in order to redress health promotion’s general failure to reduce health inequalities experienced by Indigenous Australians.

Histórias da psicologia e dos seus atores no cenário da saúde: o hospital geral e seus nós

A inserção do psicólogo no campo da saúde vem crescendo de forma considerável no âmbito nacional, principalmente nas últimas duas décadas. Está concentrada aí, atualmente, a maior oferta de vagas em concursos públicos para psicólogos, bem como uma ampliação de oportunidades na rede privada. Trata-se de um cenário bastante amplo, que inclui a atenção básica (postos de saúde, Programa de Saúde da Família, entre outros), a assistência às demandas de saúde mental (Centros de Atenção Psicossocial, rede ambulatorial e hospitais psiquiátricos), além de institutos, hospitais especializados e hospitais gerais (HGs). Em franco processo de estruturação, o campo da psicologia na saúde é marcado por pluralidades de papéis, demandas e histórias, principalmente no que tange ao contexto do HG, onde a especificidade da psicologia permanece até hoje um tanto quanto enigmática. A escassez dos dados sobre a entrada de psicólogos em HGs no Rio de Janeiro apontou o caminho que nossas buscas deveriam assumir. Assim, o objeto desta tese é discutir alguns dos diferentes fazeres do psicólogo no HG. Para tanto, optamos por um percurso que inevitavelmente nos levou a uma perspectiva histórica. Na busca de elementos que pudessem contar quando e como a psicologia se tornou uma especialidade presente nos hospitais gerais, procuramos os agentes precursores desta empreitada, aqueles que participaram ativamente da construção desse espaço como um dos lugares da psicologia na saúde. Foram realizadas cinco entrevistas com personagens dessa história no contexto fluminense, psicólogas que, cada uma em seu hospital e em um dado momento histórico, tiveram papel decisivo para que a psicologia se tornasse uma especialidade legitimada nesse cenário. Tivemos ainda como fontes de pesquisa alguns relatórios, conversas de bastidores, visitas a alguns HGs e a própria vivência da autora desta tese como psicóloga vinculada à Secretaria Estadual de Saúde e Defesa Civil do Rio de Janeiro (SESDEC/RJ). Verificamos que a história da psicologia nos HG no Rio de Janeiro é significativamente recente, oficializando-se em 1990 com a realização do primeiro concurso público com provimento de vagas para psicólogos em HGs vinculados à SES/RJ (atual SESDEC). Outros concursos ampliaram as equipes e a configuração de uma rotina na qual a palavra de ordem passou a ser a atenção ao risco psicossocial. Até esse ponto, no entanto, foram travadas muitas batalhas: entre os psicólogos e as demais equipes, entre os novos psicólogos e as direções das suas unidades de saúde, entre psicólogos estatutários e psicólogos prestadores, entre psicólogos e a própria psicologia. Nossa empreitada privilegiou a narrativa desses personagens, as histórias por eles contadas, que nos auxiliaram na composição pregressa e atual da psicologia no HG no Rio de Janeiro. São memórias que contam das dificuldades e das vitórias de cada um desses momentos, na tentativa de se definir o quase indefinível lugar da psicologia no HG. Nosso trabalho pretendeu construir um dos possíveis mapas desse campo, objetivando, com isso, fornecer subsídios para que psicólogos possam ampliar seus estilos e coletivos de pensamento em prol de um exercício profissional ético e responsável.

Sobre sofrimento e terapêuticas em um ambulatório público de saúde mental

Este trabalho tem por objetivo apresentar concepções de sofrimento e terapêuticas dos usuários de um ambulatório de Saúde Mental de um posto de saúde localizado na zona norte do Rio de Janeiro. Estas concepções, calcadas num universo holista e hierárquico de valor, contrastam com as concepções de sofrimento, pessoa e terapêuticas próprias das práticas psi, indissociáveis da perspectiva individualista que lhe deu origem, cuja concepção de pessoa é calcada na experiência de uma interioridade psicológica, dotada de liberdade de escolha, autonomia, apontando, consequentemente, para concepções acerca do adoecimento e da terapêutica bastante diferentes daquelas próprias a uma configuração hierárquica de valores. Nesse sentido, discutem-se as repercussões que essas diferenças trazem para o estabelecimento de uma relação terapêutica. Observou-se que as concepções de sofrimento e a terapêutica dos entrevistados situam-se na configuração do nervoso, na qual aspectos físicos e morais da perturbação estão imbricados de forma indissociável. Na medida em que eles se auto-representam a partir de suas relações familiares e laborativas, a construção do que seja perturbação está referida a essa relacionalidade, que lhes confere uma identidade numa organização hierárquica. A psicoterapia é também englobada por essa mesma lógica, sendo deslocada do seu sentido individualista original, para ser ressignificada à luz do modelo físico-moral da perturbação e da relacionalidade própria à configuração do nervoso. Dessa forma, entende-se a psicoterapia como conversa que visa o desabafo, botar para fora os problemas, assim como forma de pensar em outras coisas que não o problema, duas estratégias consideradas terapêuticas na configuração do nervoso.

A comparative analysis of the SF-12 and the SF-36 among ischaemic heart disease patients.

This paper investigated whether the SF-12 could replace the SF-36 in the measurement of health status among ischaemic heart disease patients. The SF-36 and SF-12 were administered to 105 cardiac patients. The SF-36 summary scores were strongly correlated and similar to the SF-12 summary scores. Also, the SF-12 scores were as powerful as the SF-36 summary scores in discriminating between subgroups of patients categorized according to their self-reported health status or angina classification. It is suggested that when there is a need to collect routine information about cardiac patients' general physical and mental health, the SF-12 is preferable to the SF-36 because of its brevity and acceptability to patients.

Genetic testing and the relationship between specific and general self-efficacy

The study examined the extent to which variations in health-specific self-efficacy could affect general self-efficacy. In a repeated measures design, 300 participants were administered an efficacy questionnaire, before and after an alleged news report, aimed at increasing or decreasing self-efficacy over genetic-testing decision making. The results found that self-efficacy over testing was significantly reduced after reading the negative news report in those participants who felt personal efficacy over testing decisions was important. Levels of general self-efficacy were also significantly decreased. The findings suggest that being denied control over a specific area of self-efficacy can have a wider impact, with a lack of perceived efficacy over testing decision making adversely impacting on levels of general well-being. The wider implications of this generalization effect and the processes involved in efficacy generalization are discussed.

Choosing to engage and choosing to persist: The role of non-specific factors in health-promoting activities

Objective
Non-specific factors play an important role in determining benefits from health-promoting activities. Previous studies have focussed on beneficial outcomes of motivation during engagement. There are two aims of this project. First, we investigated whether expectancy and intrinsic motivation influence people's decisions to engage with health-promoting activities in the first instance and then subsequently adhere to them. Second, we examined the effects of providing information on health-promoting activities as a method of influencing expectancy and intrinsic motivation.

Method
In two studies, participants were informed about a health-promoting activity (Study 1: A breathing exercise for well-being; Study 2: A gratitude exercise for smoking cessation) and told that it has either a ‘known’ or ‘unknown’ effectiveness. Participants were then given the opportunity to engage with the activity over the following days. Expectancy and intrinsic motivation were measured after reading the information and prior to engagement with the activity. Adherence to the activity was measured at follow-up.

Results
In both studies, intrinsic motivation positively predicted willingness to engage with the activities as well as subsequent adherence. Expectancy predicted adherence in Study 1 and choices to engage in Study 2, but not after controlling for intrinsic motivation. Describing the gratitude exercise as having a known effectiveness in Study 2 enhanced motivation and adherence to the activity.

Conclusions
The non-specific benefit brought by intrinsic motivation plays an important role in choosing to engage with health-promoting activities as well as subsequent adherence. Our results also show that simple statements about the potential benefits of a health-promoting activity can motivate engagement and adherence.

‘Disability and HIV in Africa: Breaking the barriers to sexual health care’

Three decades in to the HIV pandemic, the issues affecting people with disabilities remains less known. Increasing attention has been given to this overlooked population when it comes to HIV prevention, treatment and care. This is related to the significant unmet sexual and reproductive health care needs facing people with disabilities worldwide. This article discusses the barriers to sexual health for people with disabilities in Africa, and presents an argument about how mainstream HIV prevention work and research does not adequately attend to the sorts of systemic barriers that exclude people with disabilities, which a more targeted, and critical approach could.

Translating proteomics into environmental health : biomarkers discovery for tobacco smoke-induced biological damage

Tese de doutoramento, Biologia (Biologia Molecular), Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2015

Estigma e percepções dos médicos de Clínica Geral sobre a doença mental e o suicídio

RESUMO: INTRODUÇÃO: A OMS (2001) revela que cerca de 450 milhões de pessoas sofrem de perturbações mentais ou comportamentais em todo o mundo, mas apenas uma pequena minoria tem tratamento, ainda que elementar. Transformam-se em vítimas por causa da sua doença e convertem-se em alvos de estigma e discriminação. O suicídio é considerado como um grande problema de saúde pública em todo o mundo, é uma das principais causas de morte de jovens adultos e situa-se entre as três maiores causas de morte na população entre 15-34 anos (OMS, 2001). As perturbações mentais aumentam o risco de suicídio. A depressão, esquizofrenia, e a utilização de substâncias incrementam o risco de suicídio. Estudos (Sartorius, 2002; Magliano et al., 2012) mostram que os profissionais de saúde, tal como o público em geral, podem ter atitudes negativas e estigma em relação às pessoas com perturbações mentais, podendo agir em conformidade, uma vez feito e conhecido o diagnóstico psiquiátrico. Os clínicos gerais são os receptores das perturbações mentais e tentativas de suicídio nas principais portas de entrada no acesso a cuidados de saúde. As crenças, conhecimentos e contacto com a doença mental e o suicídio, podem influenciar a atenção clínica. OBJECTIVOS: Avaliar o estigma e as percepções dos médicos de clínica geral em relação às tentativas de suicídio, o suicídio e perturbações mentais bem como os possíveis factores associados a estes fenómenos. MATERIAIS E MÉTODOS: Estudo do tipo transversal, combinando métodos quantitativos e qualitativos. A amostra é constituída por 125 sujeitos, médicos de clínica geral. Utilizaram-se as versões adaptadas dos seguintes instrumentos: Questionário sobre Percepções e Estigma em Relação à Saúde Mental e ao Suicídio (Liz Macmin e SOQ, Domino, 2005) e a Escala de Atitudes sobre a Doença Mental (Amanha Hahn, 2002). Para o tratamento estatístico dos dados usou-se a estatística 1) descritiva e 2) Análise estatística das hipóteses formuladas (Qui Quadrado - 2) a correlação entre variáveis (Spearman: ρ, rho). Os dados conectados foram limpos de inconsistências com base no pacote informático e estatístico SPSS versão 20. Para a aferição da consistência interna foi usado o teste de Alfa de Cronbach. RESULTADOS: Uma boa parte da amostra (46.4%) refere que não teve formação formal ou informal em saúde mental e (69.35%) rejeitam a ideia de que “grupos profissionais como médicos, dentistas e psicólogos são mais susceptíveis a cometer o suicídio”. Já (28.0%) têm uma perspectiva pessimista quanto a possibilidade de recuperação total dos sujeitos com perturbação mental. Sessenta e oito(54.4%) associa sujeitos com perturbação mental, a comportamentos estranhos e imprevisíveis, 115 (92.0%) a um baixo QI e 35 (26.7%) a poderem ser violentas e e perigosas. Os dados mostram uma associação estatisticamente significativa (p0.001) entre as variáveis: tempo de serviço no SNS, recear estar perto de sujeitos com doença mental e achar que os sujeitos com doença mental são mais perigosos que outros. Em termos estatísticos, existe uma associação estatitisticamente significativa entre as duas variáveis(X2=9,522; p0.05): percepção de que “é vergonhoso ter uma doença mental” e os conhecimentos em relação à doença mental. Existe uma correlação positiva, fraca e estatisticamente significativa entre os conhecimentos dos clínicos gerais(beneficiar-se de formação em saúde mental) e a percepção sobre os factores de risco (0,187; P0,039). DISCUSSÃO E CONCLUSÕES: A falta de conhecimento sobre as causas e factores de risco para os comportamentos suicidários, opções de intervenção e tratamento, particularmente no âmbito da doença mental, podem limitar a procura de ajuda individual ou dos próximos. Percepções negativas como o facto de não merecerem prioridade nos serviços, mitos (frágeis e cobarde, sempre impulsivo, chamadas de atenção, problemas espirituais) podem constituir-se como um indicador de que os clínicos gerais podem sofrer do mesmo sistema de estigma e crenças, de que sofre o público em geral, podendo agir em conformidade (atitudes de afastamento ereceio). As atitudes são influenciadas por factores como a formação, cultura e sistema de crenças. Sujeitos com boa formação na área da saúde mental têm uma percepção positiva e optimista sobre os factores de risco e uma atitude positiva em relação aos sujeitos com doença mental e comportamentos suicidários.-------------ABSTRACT: INTRODUCTION: The WHO (2001) reveals that about 450 million people suffer from mental or behavioral disorders worldwide, but only a small minority have access to treatment, though elementary. They become victims because of their disease and they become the targets of stigma and discrimination. Suicide is seen as a major public health problem worldwide, is a leading cause of death for young adults and is included among the three major causes of death in the population aged 15-34 years (WHO, 2001). Mental disorders increase the risk of suicide. Depression, schizophrenia, and the substances misuse increase the risk of suicide. Studies (Sartorius, 2002; Magliano et al, 2012) show that health professionals, such as the general public, may have negative attitudes and stigma towards people with mental disorders, and can act accordingly after psychiatric diagnosis is known. General practitioners are the main entry points of mental disorders and suicide attempts in the health sistem. Beliefs, knowledge and contact with mental illness and suicide, may influence clinical care. OBJECTIVES: To assess stigma and perceptions of general practitioners in relation to suicide attempts, suicide and mental disorders as well as possible factors associated with these phenomena. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This was a descriptive cross-sectional study, combining quantitative and qualitative methods. The sample consisted of 125 subjects, general practitioners. We used adapted versions of the following instruments: Questionnaire of Perceptions and Stigma in Relation to Mental Health and Suicide (Liz Macmin and SOQ, Domino, 2005) and the Scale of Attitudes on Mental Illness (Tomorrow Hahn, 2002). For the statistical treatment of the data we used: 1) descriptive (Data distribution by absolute and relative frequencies for each of the variables under study (including mean and standard deviation measures of central tendency and deviation), 2) statistical analysis of hypotheses using (Chi Square - 2, a hypothesis test that is intended to find a value of dispersion for two nominal variables, evaluating the association between qualitative variables) and the correlation between variables (Spearman ρ, rho), a measure of non-parametric correlation, which evaluates an arbitrary monotonic function can be the description of the relationship between two variables, without making any assumptions about the frequency distribution of the variables). For statistical analysis of the correlations were eliminated subjects who did not respond to questions. The collected data were cleaned for inconsistencies based on computer and statistical package SPSS version 20. To measure the internal consistency was used the Cronbach's alpha test. RESULTS: A significant part of the sample 64 (46.4%) reported no formal or informal training in mental health and 86 (69.35%) reject the idea that "professional groups such as doctors, dentists and psychologists are more likely to commit suicide." On the other hand, 42 (28.0%) have a pessimistic view of the possibility of full recovery of individuals with mental disorder. Sixty-eight ( 54.4 % ) of them associates subjects with mental disorder to strange and unpredictable behavior, 115 ( 92.0 % ), to low IQ, 35 ( 26.7 % ) and even to violent and dangerous behavior, 78 ( 62.4 % ) The data show a statistically significant (p = 0.001) relationship between the following variables: length of service in the NHS, fear of being close to individuals with mental illness and considering individuals with mental illness more dangerous than others. In statistical terms, there is a dependency between the two variables (X2 = 9.522, p> 0.05): the perception that "it is shameful to have a mental illness" and knowledge regarding mental illness. There is a positive and statistically significant weak correlation between knowledge of general practitioners (benefit from mental health training) and the perception of the risk factors (0,187; P0,039). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The lack of knowledge about the causes and risk factors for suicidal behavior, intervention and treatment, particularly in the context of mental illness options, may decreaseseeking for help by individual and their relatives. Negative perceptions such as considering that they dont deserve priority in services, myths (weak and cowards, always impulsive, seeking for attentions, spirituals problems) may indicate that general practitioners, may suffer the same stigma and beliefs systems as the general public, and can act accordingly (withdrawal and fear attitudes). Attitudes are influenced by factors such as education, culture and belief system. Subjects with good training in mental health have a positive and optimistic perception of the risk factors and a positiveattitude towards individuals with mental illness and suicidal behaviour.

Profil de pratique des médecins omnipraticiens en santé mentale au Québec

Au Québec, face à la prévalence élevée des problèmes de santé mentale et à la pénurie de médecins psychiatres, le médecin omnipraticien (MO) occupe une place primordiale dans la prise en charge et le suivi des soins de santé mentale. Dans le contexte de réforme du système de santé mentale axée sur un renforcement de la collaboration entre les MO, les psychiatres et les équipes de santé mentale, notre étude vise à mieux comprendre la pratique clinique et la pratique collaborative développée par les MO, leur appréciation des outils de travail et de la qualité des services de santé mentale, dans le but d’améliorer la complémentarité des soins au niveau primaire. Cette étude transversale impliquait 1415 MO de neuf territoires de centre de santé et de services sociaux (CSSS) du Québec. L’échantillon final était constitué de 398 MO représentatifs de lieux de pratique diversifiés et le taux de réponse était de 41%. Nos résultats mettent en évidence que la pratique clinique et la pratique collaborative des MO diffère selon le degré de gravité des problèmes de santé mentale des patients rencontrés, c’est à dire, trouble transitoire/modéré de santé mentale (TTM.SM) ou trouble grave de santé mentale (TG.SM), et que les MO sont favorables au fait de travailler en collaboration avec les autres professionnels de la santé mentale. Ainsi, il apparaît important de renforcer l’accessibilité des MO aux professionnels de la santé mentale, particulièrement les psychiatres, et de les informer de l’existence des autres acteurs en santé mentale sur leur territoire, pour renforcer la collaboration et la qualité des soins primaires de santé mentale.