Impact of Tobacco Control Policy on Smoking and Exposure to Environmental Tobacco Smoke

The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of the Finnish tobacco control measures for reduction of smoking. First, the trends and patterns in ever smoking among adult Finns in 1978 2001 as well as the associations of trends with the Tobacco Control Act in 1976 were examined. Secondly, the impact of the 1976 TCA on the proportion of ever daily smokers in different socioeconomic groups was studied. Thirdly, the impact of the 1995 TCAA on recent trends in the prevalence of daily smoking was evaluated by gender and employment status. Fourthly, the trends of exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) at workplaces and homes were investigated. The study is based on data of the Health Behaviour among the Finnish Adult Population surveys. Among Finnish men smoking initiation declined from earlier to later cohorts, whereas among women it increased in successive birth cohorts born before 1956. The lasting differences between birth cohorts as regards ever daily smoking reflected well the impact of measures to reduce smoking in Finland in 1976. Smoking initiation in the birth cohorts (born in 1961 or later) which were in critical age as regards the risk of smoking initiation when the TCA came into force was less common than could be expected according to the trends seen in the earlier birth cohorts. Marked socioeconomic differences were found in smoking in the different birth cohorts. Smoking was more prevalent in the lower socioeconomic groups than in the higher ones, and the differences were larger in the later birth cohorts compared to the earlier ones. The differences between the birth cohorts in ever daily smoking were compatible with the hypothetical impact of the TCA in almost all socioeconomic groups, except farmers. Among men the 1976 TCA appears to have had the greatest impact on white-collar employees. Among women the effect of the act was highly significant in all socioeconomic groups. However, female smoking prevalence continues to show wide socioeconomic disparities. Daily smoking decreased among employees after the 1995 TCAA, supporting the hypothesis of the lowering impact of the amendment on daily smoking due to increased smoking cessation. No parallel change in daily smoking was found in the population without direct expose to ETS legislation (farmers, students, housewives, pensioners or unemployed). Exposure to ETS decreased markedly among non-smokers at work after the 1995 TCAA. The 1976 TCA and the 1995 TCAA were useful in controlling smoking initiation and cessation, but their impact was not equal across the population groups. The results of this study strongly suggested that tobacco control policies markedly contribute to the decrease in smoking and in exposure to environmental tobacco smoke.

Maternal and paternal support for physical activity and healthy eating in preschool children: A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND Parental support is a key influence on children's health behaviours; however, no previous investigation has simultaneously explored the influence of mothers' and fathers' social support on eating and physical activity in preschool-aged children. This study evaluated the singular and combined effects of maternal and paternal support for physical activity (PA) and fruit and vegetable consumption (FV) on preschoolers' PA and FV. METHODS A random sample comprising 173 parent-child dyads completed validated scales assessing maternal and paternal instrumental support and child PA and FV behaviour. Pearson correlations, controlling for child age, parental age, and parental education, were used to evaluate relationships between maternal and paternal support and child PA and FV. K-means cluster analysis was used to identify families with distinct patterns of maternal and paternal support for PA and FV, and one-way ANOVA examined the impact of cluster membership on child PA and FV. RESULTS Maternal and paternal support for PA were positively associated with child PA (r = 0.37 and r = 0.36, respectively; P < 0.001). Maternal but not paternal support for FV was positively associated with child FV (r = 0.35; P < 0.001). Five clusters characterised groups of families with distinct configurations of maternal and paternal support for PA and FV: 1) above average maternal and paternal support for PA and FV, 2) below average maternal and paternal support for PA and FV, 3) above average maternal and paternal support for PA but below average maternal and paternal support for FV, 4) above average maternal and paternal support for FV but below average maternal and paternal support for PA, and 5) above average maternal support but below average paternal support for PA and FV. Children from families with above average maternal and paternal support for both health behaviours had higher PA and FV levels than children from families with above average support for just one health behaviour, or below average support for both behaviours. CONCLUSIONS The level and consistency of instrumental support from mothers and fathers for PA and FV may be an important target for obesity prevention in preschool-aged children.

Season of birth and location of residence: Defining the role of ultraviolet radiation exposure on childhood temperament and behaviour

This thesis added new insight to research knowledge about the role that season and ultraviolet radiation (UV) exposure during pregnancy has on children's temperament and behaviours, using a nation-wide longitudinal study. It was found that young children born in summer months are likely to have problematic behaviours. The thesis also found that summer-born children are likely to receive lowest levels of UV exposure during the gestational period. Finally, this work showed that low gestational UV exposure is associated with an increased risk of behavioural problems in children.

Visual Impairment in Finnish Children : Prevalence, causes and morbidity of full-term and preterm children with visual impairment born from 1972 through 1989

The prevalence and the causes of childhood visual impairment in Finland during the 1970s and the 1980s were investigated, with special attention to risk factors and further prevention of visual impairment in children. The primary data on children with visual impairment were obtained from the Finnish Register of Visual Impairment, one of the patient registers kept up by the National Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health (Stakes). The data were supplemented from other registers in Stakes and from patient records of the children in Finnish central hospitals. Visual impairment had been registered in 556 children from a population of 1,138,326 children between ages 0-17, born from 1972 through 1989. The age-specific prevalence of registered visual impairment was 49/100,000 in total. Of them, 23/100,000 were blind children and 11/100,000 were children born prematurely. Boys were impaired more often and more severely than girls. Congenital malformations (52%), systemic diseases (48%), and multiple impairments (50%) were common. The main ophthalmic groups of visual impairment were retinal diseases (35%), ocular malformations (29%), and neuro-ophthalmological disorders (29%). Optic nerve atrophy was the most common diagnosis of visual impairment (22%), followed by congenital cataract (11%), retinopathy of prematurity (10%), and cerebral visual impairment (8%). Genetic factors (42%) were the most common etiologies of visual impairment, followed by prenatal (30%) and perinatal (21%) factors. The highest rates of blindness were seen in cerebral visual impairment (83%) and retinopathy of prematurity (82%). Retinopathy of prematurity had developed in the children born at a gestational age of 32 weeks or earlier. Significant risks for visual impairment were found in the association with preterm births, prenatal infections, birth asphyxia, neonatal respiratory difficulties, mechanical ventilation lasting over two weeks, and hyperbilirubinemia. A rise in blind and multi-impaired children was seen during the study period, associating with increases in the survival of preterm infants with extremely low birth weight. The incidence of visual impairment in children born prematurely was seven times higher than in children born at full term. A reliable profile of childhood visual impairment was obtained. The importance of highly qualified antenatal, neonatal, and ophthalmological care was clearly proved. The risks associated with pre- and perinatal disorders during pregnancy must be emphasized, e.g. the risks associated with maternal infections and the use of tobacco, alcohol, and drugs during pregnancy. Obvious needs for gene therapies and other new treatments for hereditary diseases were also proved.

Water in Action : Encounters among 2- to 3-Year-Old Children, Adults, and Water in Day Care

In line with cultural psychology and developmental theory, a single case approach is applied to construct knowledge on how children s interaction emerge interlinked to historical, social, cultural, and material context. The study focuses on the negotiation of constraints and meaning construction among 2-to 3-year-old children, a preschool teacher, and the researcher in settings with water. Water as an element offers a special case of cultural canalization: adults selectively monitor and guide children s access to it. The work follows the socio-cultural tradition in psychology, particularly the co-constructivist theory of human development and the Network of Meanings perspective developed at the University of São Paulo. Valsiner s concepts of Zone of Free Movement and Zone of Promoted Action are applied together with studies where interactions are seen as spaces of construction where negotiation of constraints for actions, emotions, and conceptions occur. The corpus was derived at a Finnish municipal day care centre. During a seven months period, children s actions were video recorded in small groups twice a month. The teacher and the researcher were present. Four sessions with two children were chosen for qualitative microanalysis; the analysis also addressed the transformations during the months covered by the study. Moreover, the data derivation was analyzed reflectively. The narrowed down arenas for actions were continuously negotiated among the participants both nonverbally and verbally. The adults expectations and intentions were materialized in the arrangements of the setting canalizing the possibilities for actions. Children s co-regulated actions emerged in relation to the adults presence, re-structuring attempts, and the constraints of the setting. Children co-constructed novel movements and meanings in relation to the initiatives and objects offered. Gestures, postures, and verbalizations emerged from the initially random movements and became constructed to have specific meanings and functions; meaning construction became abbreviated. The participants attempted to make sense of the ambiguous (explicit and implicit) intentions and fuzzy boundaries of promoted and possible actions: individualized yet overlapping features were continuously negotiated by all the participants. Throughout the months, children s actions increasingly corresponded adults (re-defined) conceptions of water researchers as an emerging group culture. Water became an instrument and a context for co-regulations. The study contributes to discussions on children as participants in cultural canalization and emphasizes the need for analysis in early childhood education practices on the implicit and explicit constraint structures for actions.

Medida provisória na Constituição de 1988 e a necessidade de sua limitação

As medidas provisórias passaram a integrar o processo legislativo brasileiro com o advento da Constituição de 1988. A previsão inicial das medidas provisórias no art. 62 da Constituição Federal foi se tornando insatisfatória por deficiências oriundas dos pressupostos de relevância e urgência, em razão dos mesmos terem sido aferidos como muito genéricos ou subjetivos, o que acarretou sua demasiada edição. Com o intuito de restringir o poder do chefe do Executivo, foi aprovada, a Emenda Constitucional n. 32/2002, regulamentada pela Resolução 01/2002 do Congresso Nacional. Há consenso geral sobre a afronta estabelecida ao processo legislativo em função da perda de competência do Congresso derivada da excessiva edição de medidas provisórias, sendo necessário limitar essa prejudicial atuação executiva que tem estabelecido o trancamento de pauta constante nas votações no Parlamento.

Medidas Provisórias e a relação Executivo x Legislativo : uma visão do sobrestamento de pauta

Verifica o impacto que o sobrestamento de pauta, instituído pela Emenda Constitucional n. 32/2001, concebida para refrear o uso exacerbado de medidas provisórias, ocasionou na agenda do Legislativo. Tendo-se como premissa que a relação entre o Legislativo e o Executivo caracteriza-se pelo sistema presidencialista de coalizão e que as medidas provisórias configuram o principal instrumento utilizado pelo Executivo para controlar a agenda política do País, aborda o instituto das MP desde a sua inserção na Constituição de 1988 até as propostas atuais de modificação para se traçar um histórico do caminho percorrido pelo Parlamento brasileiro na tentativa de conter o abuso do poder legiferante do Executivo e impedir o esvaziamento das competências precípuas do Poder Legislativo. Investiga por que o Legislativo não tem conseguido frear a produção de medidas provisórias, considerando-se que essa é a vontade de seus representantes. Concentra-se no problema do sobrestamento de pauta do Poder Legislativo decorrente da não apreciação de medida provisória em até quarenta e cinco dias contados da sua publicação, como determina o § 6º do art. 62 do atual texto da Constituição Federal.

A execução por quantia certa em face dos entes públicos: um estudo sob a perspectiva do direito a execução das decisões judiciais

Este estudo tem como objetivo analisar a disciplina da execução por quantia certa contra os entes públicos no Direito brasileiro e sua compatibilidade com o direito à execução das decisões judiciais. Inicialmente, buscou-se definir o conteúdo do direito à execução das decisões judiciais. Posteriormente, foi analisado o direito francês, com o escopo de comparar esse sistema com o vigente no Brasil. Também foram objeto de nossa análise os fundamentos da execução contra os entes públicos, como a igualdade, separação de poderes, impenhorabilidade dos bens públicos e interesse público, tendo concluído que apenas o primeiro é idôneo à justificar a ausência de poderes sub-rogatórios do juiz sobre o patrimônio estatal. Por fim, analisamos as regras que compõem a execução contra os entes públicos no Brasil, em especial aquelas introduzidas pela Emenda Constitucional n. 62 de 2009. Estes dispositivos, em sua maioria, são violadores do direito à execução das decisões judiciais, na medida em que não permitem o cumprimento das sentenças em um tempo razoável, como ocorre com o art. 97, 1, do ADCT.

Federalismo, relações fiscais e financiamento do Sistema Único de Saúde: a distribuição de receitas vinculadas à saúde nos orçamentos municipais e estaduais

O trabalho aborda as relações entre o federalismo fiscal e o financiamento do Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS) no período de 1990 a 2002. Parte-se do pressuposto que decisões críticas dos atores federativos subnacionais estão submetidas aos critérios e condicionantes que regem a distribuição, apropriação e uso de recursos setoriais e de receitas próprias vinculadas à saúde pelos dispositivos da Emenda Constitucional n.29 de 2000. Na pesquisa, os resultados das regras que definem o financiamento descentralizado do SUS são analisados, comparando-se e correlacionando-se os valores das receitas públicas informadas pelos municípios e estados através do Sistema de Informações de Orçamentos Públicos em Saúde no ano 2002. Verifica-se que os municípios do Norte, Nordeste e aqueles com população de 20 mil a 100 mil habitantes, se comparados a outros grupos: 1) possuem menores chances de ampliação de recursos próprios para a saúde como efeito da vinculação estabelecida pela Emenda Constitucional, já que a disponibilidade dessas fontes é relativamente mais baixa; 2) precisam empreender maior esforço fiscal e comprometer uma parcela mais elevada de seus orçamentos para garantirem a adequação dos recursos às suas necessidades de gasto em saúde; e 3) são os que mais dependem das transferências federais da saúde para ampliar suas receitas destinadas ao SUS e, por isso, estão mais sujeitos aos mecanismos de indução e controle do Ministério da Saúde. No âmbito estadual, percebem-se importantes diferenças entre as regiões, sendo particularmente crítica a situação financeira dos estados do Nordeste. Ainda que o grau de vinculação de recursos à saúde no Brasil seja comparável ao de outros países, observa-se a heterogeneidade nas condições de financiamento, acompanhada pela fragmentação dos dispositivos de transferência e forte determinação no uso dos recursos. Em que pese a importância das transferências regulares de recursos federais do SUS nos orçamentos subnacionais, ressalta-se a fragilidade dos mecanismos de descentralização implantados. A saúde é sustentada por uma grande variedade de recursos próprios e setoriais que remetem a uma teia de relações e interdependência fiscal e orçamentária envolvendo os três níveis de governo. Entretanto, os entraves para a redistribuição fiscal e para expansão efetiva dessas receitas permanecem no início dos anos 2000. No balanço orçamentário final das esferas subnacionais, verifica-se que as diferenças nas receitas totais vinculadas à saúde são expressivas entre os municípios agrupados por região, estados, porte populacional e capitais, entre os estados e o Distrito Federal. Os achados indicam os problemas do sistema tributário brasileiro, incapaz de compensar desequilíbrios fiscais e orçamentários mais permanentes e estruturais dos diferentes níveis de governo. Também sugerem efeitos contraditórios de um financiamento público da saúde que reagiu e se institucionalizou numa federação marcada por profundas desigualdades e em uma conjuntura política e econômica adversa à expansão do papel do Estado.

Intervenções das políticas federais de educação nos sistemas públicos municipais de ensino: reflexos na Região Serrana do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (1996-2006)

Ao longo dos anos 1990, a partir da Constituição Federal de 1988, da Emenda Constitucional n 14 e da LDB, ambas de 1996, novo panorama educacional tomou forma no Brasil, causando impactos, principalmente no meio rural. Naquele momento, se redefiniram as responsabilidades de estados e municípios na oferta da educação escolar, instituíram-se mecanismos de colaboração, financiamento, e manutenção entre as três esferas, reforçando-se o papel da União, como coordenadora das políticas em âmbito nacional. Considerado pelo Governo Federal como a principal reforma educacional promovida pelo Brasil na década de 90, o Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento do Ensino Fundamental (FUNDEF) assegurava a redistribuição dos recursos públicos, vinculados ao ensino obrigatório, de acordo com o número de alunos atendidos pela rede municipal e estadual de ensino,baseado no custo- aluno anual. Ao mesmo tempo, através do Fundo Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educação(FNDE), a União exerce sua função supletiva e redistributiva em relação à escolaridade obrigatória. A investigação tem ainda como objetivo, desvelar algumas contradições; a regulamentação do FUNDEF implicou em perda ou aumento da receita; enquanto, nos programas no FNDE, os gastos com os recursos públicos deveriam ser controlados pelos diversos conselhos de fiscalização e acompanhamento (CACS). Por outro lado, em alguns municípios do interior, o critério para a escolha dos integrantes destes conselhos e dos próprios secretários de educação, se revela como de cunho pessoal, priorizando a execução das formalidades burocráticas. Perante tal cultura política, o cumprimento da nova legislação, gerou dificuldades de ordem político-administrativa, no sentido de assumir as exigências daquelas novas diretrizes. O estudo sobre os sistemas públicos de ensino da Região Serrana (RJ) se baseou na metodologia do estudo de caso, na revisão de literatura sobre o tema e também, em dados oficiais e entrevistas com os dirigentes das secretarias municipais de educação de Santa Maria Madalena, Trajano de Moraes e São Sebastião do Alto.

Repercussão geral e Supremo Tribunal Federal: deficiências da modelagem atual e propostas para o aprimoramento do instituto

A presente dissertação tem como objetivo central fomentar os debates em torno da repercussão geral, mais especificamente, acerca do desenvolvimento de propostas que possam ser implementadas pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal para aprimorar o filtro recursal criado pela Emenda Constitucional n 45/04. A partir de uma análise descritiva da jurisprudência do STF, procurou-se traçar um panorama sobre a forma como tribunal vem lidando com a repercussão geral e, em seguida, identificar alguns problemas que a têm impedido de alcançar suas finalidades principais, que são racionalizar os trabalhos da corte e reduzir o número de processos que chegam anualmente à última instância do Poder Judiciário brasileiro. Concluído o diagnóstico inicial, as atenções se voltaram para a elaboração de propostas que pudessem equacionar as barreiras encontradas, tudo com o propósito de alimentar os debates em torno do que pode ser feito pelo Supremo para superá-las ou, ao menos, reduzir seus efeitos sobre os jurisdicionados.

Environmental threats to children's health in Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific

The Southeast Asia and Western Pacific regions contain half of the world's children and are among the most rapidly industrializing regions of the globe. Environmental threats to children's health are widespread and are multiplying as nations in the area undergo industrial development and pass through the epidemiologic transition. These environmental hazards range from traditional threats such as bacterial contamination of drinking water and wood smoke in poorly ventilated dwellings to more recently introduced chemical threats such as asbestos construction materials; arsenic in groundwater; methyl isocyanate in Bhopal, India; untreated manufacturing wastes released to landfills; chlorinated hydrocarbon and organophosphorous pesticides; and atmospheric lead emissions from the combustion of leaded gasoline. To address these problems, pediatricians, environmental health scientists, and public health workers throughout Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific have begun to build local and national research and prevention programs in children's environmental health. Successes have been achieved as a result of these efforts: A cost-effective system for producing safe drinking water at the village level has been devised in India; many nations have launched aggressive antismoking campaigns; and Thailand, the Philippines, India, and Pakistan have all begun to reduce their use of lead in gasoline, with resultant declines in children's blood lead levels. The International Conference on Environmental Threats to the Health of Children, held in Bangkok, Thailand, in March 2002, brought together more than 300 representatives from 35 countries and organizations to increase awareness on environmental health hazards affecting children in these regions and throughout the world. The conference, a direct result of the Environmental Threats to the Health of Children meeting held in Manila in April 2000, provided participants with the latest scientific data on children's vulnerability to environmental hazards and models for future policy and public health discussions on ways to improve children's health. The Bangkok Statement, a pledge resulting from the conference proceedings, is an important first step in creating a global alliance committed to developing active and innovative national and international networks to promote and protect children's environmental health.

Getting Constitutional Theory into Proportion: A Matter of Interpretation?

Gibbs, N., Getting Constitutional Theory into Proportion: A Matter of Interpretation?, Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 27 (1), 175-191. RAE2008

Listening to children in the field of education: experience in Wales

Listening to children in the field of education: experience in Wales, (2007) 19 Child and Family Law Quarterly 161-182 pp.161-182 RAE2008

The differences in the social competence of children who attend integrated junior infant classes and children who attend segregated learning environments

There are a number of reasons why this researcher has decided to undertake this study into the differences in the social competence of children who attend integrated Junior Infant classes and children who attend segregated learning environments. Theses reasons are both personal and professional. My personal reasons stem from having grown up in a family which included both an aunt who presented with Down Syndrome and an uncle who presented with hearing impairment. Both of these relatives' experiences in our education system are interesting. My aunt was considered ineducable while her brother - my uncle - was sent to Dublin (from Cork) at six years of age to be educated by a religious order. My professional reasons, on the other hand, stemmed from my teaching experience. Having taught in both special and integrated classrooms it became evident to me that there was somewhat 'suspicion' attached to integration. Parents of children without disabilities questioned whether this process would have a negative impact on their children's education. While parents of children with disabilities debated whether integrated settings met the specific needs of their children. On the other hand, I always questioned whether integration and inclusiveness meant the same thing. My research has enabled me to find many answers. Increasingly, children with special educational needs (SEN) are attending a variety of integrated and inclusive childcare and education settings. This contemporary practice of educating children who present with disabilities in mainstream classrooms has stimulated vast interest on the impact of such practices on children with identified disabilities. Indeed, children who present with disabilities "fare far better in mainstream education than in special schools" (Buckley, cited in Siggins, 2001,p.25). However, educators and practitioners in the field of early years education and care are concerned with meeting the needs of all children in their learning environments, while also upholding high academic standards (Putman, 1993). Fundamentally, therefore, integrated education must also produce questions about the impact of this practice on children without identified special educational needs. While these questions can be addressed from the various areas of child development (i.e. cognitive, physical, linguistic, emotional, moral, spiritual and creative), this research focused on the social domain. It investigates the development of social competence in junior infant class children without identified disabilities as they experience different educational settings.