Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) Using Strain Gauges, PVDF Film and Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) Sensors: A Comparative Study

The term Structural Health Monitoring has gained wide acceptance in the recent pastas a means to monitor a structure and provide an early warning of an unsafe conditionusing real-time data. Utilization of structurally integrated, distributed sensors tomonitor the health of a structure through accurate interpretation of sensor signals andreal-time data processing can greatly reduce the inspection burden. The rapidimprovement of the Fiber Bragg Grating sensor technology for strain, vibration andacoustic emission measurements in recent times make them a feasible alternatives tothe traditional strain gauges transducers and conventional Piezoelectric sensors usedfor Non Destructive Evaluation (NDE) and Structural Health Monitoring (SHM).Optical fiber-based sensors offers advantages over conventional strain gauges, PVDFfilm and PZT devices in terms of size, ease of embedment, immunity fromelectromagnetic interference(EMI) and potential for multiplexing a number ofsensors. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the feasibility of Fiber BraggGrating sensor and compare its utility with the conventional strain gauges and PVDFfilm sensors. For this purpose experiments are being carried out in the laboratory on acomposite wing of a mini air vehicle (MAV). In this paper, the results obtained fromthese preliminary experiments are discussed.

Measurement of Stress-Strain Response of A Rammed Earth Prism In Compression Using Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors

A comparative study of strain response and mechanical properties of rammed earth prisms, has been made using Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors (optical) and clip-on extensometer (electro-mechanical). The aim of this study is to address the merits and demerits of traditional extensometer vis-à-vis FBG sensor; a uni-axial compression test has been performed on a rammed earth prism to validate its structural properties from the stress - strain curves obtained by two different methods of measurement. An array of FBG sensors on a single fiber with varying Bragg wavelengths (..B), has been used to spatially resolve the strains along the height of the specimen. It is interesting to note from the obtained stress-strain curves that the initial tangent modulus obtained using the FBG sensor is lower compared to that obtained using clip-on extensometer. The results also indicate that the strains measured by both FBG and extensometer sensor follow the same trend and both the sensors register the maximum strain value at the same time.

Detection and determination of manganese concentration in water using a fiber Bragg grating coupled with nanotechnology

Through this paper we experimentally demonstrate the fabrication of a fiber Bragg grating (FBG) chemical sensor to detect and determine the manganese concentration in water and compare our results with sophisticated spectroscopic methods, such as atomic absorption spectrometry and the inductively coupled plasma method. Here we propose a simple method to develop a thin layer of gold nanoparticles above the etched grating region to enhance the sensitivity of the reflected spectrum of the FBG. By doing so, we achieve a sensitivity of 1.26 nm/parts per million in determining the trace level of Mn in water. Proper reagents are used to detect manganese in water. (C) 2011 Optical Society of America

Decentralized peak power control based on short-term forecast using modified Kalman filter

This paper proposes a method of short term load forecasting with limited data, applicable even at 11 kV substation levels where total power demand is relatively low and somewhat random and weather data are usually not available as in most developing countries. Kalman filtering technique has been modified and used to forecast daily and hourly load. Planning generation and interstate energy exchange schedule at load dispatch centre and decentralized Demand Side Management at substation level are intended to be carried out with the help of this short term load forecasting technique especially to achieve peak power control without enforcing load-shedding.

A novel interrogation system for fiber Bragg grating sensor array

Interrogation techniques for fiber Bragg grating sensor arrays need particular attention in the case of structural health monitoring applications involving dynamic strain measurement. Typically the performance of the sensing system is dependent on both the sensor type and the interrogation method employed. A novel interrogation system is proposed here that consists of different interrogation units for each sensor in the array, each unit comprising of a circulator, chirped grating and a Mach-Zehnder interferometer. We present an analysis that consists of tracking the spectral changes as the light passes through various elements in the interrogation system. This is expected to help in the optimization of sensor and interrogation elements leading to improved performance of the health monitoring system.

Dual functional performance of fiber Bragg gratings coated with metals using flash evaporation technique

Metallic and other type of coatings on fiber Bragg grating (FBG) sensors alter their sensitivity with thermal and mechanical stress while protecting the fragile optical fiber in harsh sensing surroundings. The behavior of the coated materials is unique in their response to thermal and mechanical stress depending on the thickness and the mode of coating. The thermal stress during the coating affects the temperature sensitivity of FBG sensors. We have explored the thermal response of FBGs coated with Al and Pb to an average thickness of 80 nm using flash evaporation technique where the FBG sensor is mounted in a region at room temperature in an evacuated chamber having a pressure of 10(6) Torr which will minimize any thermal stress during the coating process. The coating thickness is chosen in the nanometer region with the aim to study thermal behavior of nanocoatings and their effect on FBG sensitivity. The sensitivity of FBGs is evaluated from the wavelengths recorded using an optical sensing interrogator sm 130 (Micron Optics) from room temperature to 300 degrees C both during heating and cooling. It is observed that the sensitivity of the metal coated fibers is better than the reference FBG with no coating for the entire range of temperature. For a coating thickness of 80 nm, Al coated FBG is more sensitive than the one coated with Pb up to 170 degrees C and it reverses at higher temperatures. This point is identified as a reversible phase transition in Pb monolayers as the 2-dimensional aspects of the metal layers are dominant in the nanocoatings of Pb. On cooling, the phase transition reverses and the FBGs return to the original state and for repeated cycles of heating and cooling the same pattern is observed. Thus the FBG functions as a sensor of the phase transitions of the coatings also. (C) 2012 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A Novel Fiber Bragg Grating Based Sensing Methodology for Direct Measurement of Surface Strain on Body Muscles during Physical Exercises

The present work proposes a new sensing methodology, which uses Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) to measure in vivo the surface strain and strain rate on calf muscles while performing certain exercises. Two simple exercises, namely ankle dorsi-flexion and ankle plantar-flexion, have been considered and the strain induced on the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle while performing these exercises has been monitored. The real time strain generated has been recorded and the results are compared with those obtained using a commercial Color Doppler Ultrasound (CDU) system. It is found that the proposed sensing methodology is promising for surface strain measurements in biomechanical applications.

RCS ENHANCEMENT DUE TO BRAGG SCATTERING

With the advances of techniques for RCS reduction, it has become practical to develop aircraft which are invisible to modern day radars. In order to detect such low visible targets it is necessary to explore other phenomenon that contributes to the scattering of incident electromagnetic wave. It is well known from the developments from the clear air scattering using RASS induced acoustic wave could be used to create dielectric constant fluctuation. The scattering from these fluctuations rather than from the aircraft have been observed to enhance the RCS of clear air, under the condition when the incident EM wave is half of the acoustic wave, the condition of Bragg scattering would be met and RCS would be enhanced. For detecting low visibility targets which are at significant distance away from the main radar, inducement of EM fluctuation from acoustic source collocated with the acoustic source is infeasible. However the flow past aircraft produces acoustic disturbances around the aircraft can be exploited to detect low visibility targets. In this paper numerical simulation for RCS enhancement due to acoustic disturbances is presented. In effect, this requires the solution of scattering from 3D inhomogeneous complex shaped bodies. In this volume surface integral equation (VSIE) is used to compute the RCS from fluctuation introduced through the acoustic disturbances. Though the technique developed can be used to study the scattering from radars of any shape and acoustic disturbances of any shape. For illustrative condition, enhancement due to the Bragg scattering are shown to improve the RCS by nearly 30dB, for air synthetic sinusoidal acoustic variation profile for a spherical scattering volume

Calibration of etched fiber bragg grating sensor arrays for measurement of molecular surface adsorption

Etched Fiber Bragg Grating (EFBG) sensors are attractive from the point of the inherently high multiplexing ability of fiber based sensors. However, the strong dependence of the sensitivity of EFBG sensors on the fiber diameter requires robust methods for calibration when used for distributed sensing in a large array format. Using experimental data and numerical modelling, we show that knowledge of the wavelength shift during the etch process is necessary for high-fidelity calibration of EFBG arrays. However as this approach requires the monitoring of every element of the sensor array during etching, we also proposed and demonstrated a calibration scheme using data from bulk refractometry measurements conducted post-fabrication without needing any information about the etching process. Although this approach is not as precise as the first one, it may be more practical as there is no requirement to monitor each element of the sensor array. We were able to calibrate the response of the sensors to within 3% with the approach using information acquired during etching and to within 5% using the post-fabrication bulk refractometry approach in spite of the sensitivities of the array element differing by more than a factor of 4. These two approaches present a tradeoff between accuracy and practicality.

Detection limit of etched fiber bragg grating sensors

While Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors have been extensively used for temperature and strain sensing, clad etched FBGs (EFBGs) have only recently been explored for refractive index sensing. Prior literature in EFBG based refractive index sensing predominantly deals with bulk refractometry only, where the Bragg wavelength shift of the sensor as a function of the bulk refractive index of the sample can be analytically modeled, unlike the situation for adsorption of molecular thin films on the sensor surface. We used a finite element model to calculate the Bragg wavelength change as a function of thickness and refractive index of the adsorbing molecular layer and compared the model with the real-time, in-situ measurement of electrostatic layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of weak polyelectrolytes on the silica surface of EFBGs. We then used this model to calculate the layer thickness of LbL films and found them to be in agreement with literature. Further, we used this model to arrive at a realistic estimate of the limit of detection of EFBG sensors based on nominal measurement noise levels in current FBG interrogation systems and found that sufficiently thinned EFBGs can provide a competitive platform for real-time measurement of molecular interactions while simultaneously leveraging the high multiplexing capabilities of fiber optics.

CO2 sensing at room temperature using carbon nanotubes coated core fiber Bragg grating

The sensing of carbon dioxide (CO2) at room temperature, which has potential applications in environmental monitoring, healthcare, mining, biotechnology, food industry, etc., is a challenge for the scientific community due to the relative inertness of CO2. Here, we propose a novel gas sensor based on clad-etched Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) with polyallylamine-amino-carbon nanotube coated on the surface of the core for detecting the concentrations of CO2 gas at room temperature, in ppm levels over a wide range (1000 ppm-4000 ppm). The limit of detection observed in polyallylamine-amino-carbon nanotube coated core-FBG has been found to be about 75 ppm. In this approach, when CO2 gas molecules interact with the polyallylamine-amino-carbon nanotube coated FBG, the effective refractive index of the fiber core changes, resulting in a shift in Bragg wavelength. The experimental data show a linear response of Bragg wavelength shift for increase in concentration of CO2 gas. Besides being reproducible and repeatable, the technique is fast, compact, and highly sensitive. (C) 2013 AIP Publishing LLC.

pH Induced switching in hydrogel coated fiber bragg grating sensor

In this paper we report a novel hydrogel functionalized optical Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensor based on chemo-mechanical-optical sensing, and demonstrate its specific application in pH activated process monitoring. The sensing mechanism is based on the stress due to ion diffusion and polymer phase transition which produce strain in the FBG. This results in shift in the Bragg wavelength which is detected by an interrogator system. A simple dip coating method to coat a thin layer of hydrogel on the FBG has been established. The gel consists of sodium alginate and calcium chloride. Gel formation is observed in real-time by continuously monitoring the Bragg wavelength shift. We have demonstrated pH sensing in the range of pH of 2 to 10. Another interesting phenomenon is observed by swelling and deswelling of FBG functionalized with hydrogel by a sequence of alternate dipping between acidic and base solutions. It is observed that the Bragg wavelength undergoes reversible and repeatable pH dependent switching.

Blood pressure evaluation using sphygmomanometry assisted by arterial pulse waveform detection by fiber Bragg grating pulse device

We report a blood pressure evaluation methodology by recording the radial arterial pulse waveform in real time using a fiber Bragg grating pulse device (FBGPD). Here, the pressure responses of the arterial pulse in the form of beat-to-beat pulse amplitude and arterial diametrical variations are monitored. Particularly, the unique signatures of pulse pressure variations have been recorded in the arterial pulse waveform, which indicate the systolic and diastolic blood pressure while the patient is subjected to the sphygmomanometric blood pressure examination. The proposed method of blood pressure evaluation using FBGPD has been validated with the auscultatory method of detecting the acoustic pulses (Korotkoff sounds) by an electronic stethoscope. (C) 2013 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE)