A low-cost trap for Cerambycidae monitoring in forest plantations in Brazil

The objective of this work was to evaluate the use of a low-cost trap to capture Cerambycidae in different seasons in planted forests in Brazil. Thirty polyethylene-terephthalate trap bottles per hectare were used, disposed at every 50 m. The traps were red painted and contained glass flasks with a mixture of ethanol, methanol and benzaldehyde. There were soap and water at the trap bottom. The traps were checked biweekly for beetle presence. Sampling time required one minute per sample, and traps were easy to use. Total sampling cost, including materials and labor, was US$ 13.46 per sample. Six Cerambycidae species were captured along the dry and rainy seasons.

Occurrence of Euplatypus parallelus, Euplatypus sp. (col.: Euplatypodidae) and Xyleborus affinis (col.: Scolytidae) in Pinus sp. in Ribas do Rio Pardo, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil

Wood borer species of the families Euplatypodidae and Scolytidae were observed attacking trees of Pinus sp. in the Municipality of Ribas do Rio Pardo, state of Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil, in March 2000. This plantation had been previously burned in an accidental fire in January 2000, causing the trees to become partially or totally unhealthy, rendering them more susceptible to attack of these pests. Galleries of these wood borers were opened with a chisel to observe parameters such as their direction and form of these galleries. Species observed as wood borers of Pinus sp. were Euplatypus parallelus, Euplatypus sp. (Coleoptera: Euplatypodidae) and Xyleborus affinis (Coleoptera: Scolytidae).

Wood density of trees in black water floodplains of Rio Jaú National Park, Amazonia, Brazil

The Jaú National Park is the largest protected forested area in the world. The Vitória Amazônica Foundation is working towards understanding its ecosystem, to which this paper contributes. Wood density was analysed in 27 common tree species growing in the blackwater flood-plains of the Rio Jaú, an affluent of the Rio Negro (Amazonia, Brazil). Wood was sampled with an increment borer. Mean wood density of the analysed species ranged from 0.35 to 0.87 g cm-3. The mean of all sampled species was 0.67 g cm-3 (st. dev. 0.13). Lowest density was found for Hevea spruceana with 0.32 g cm-3 and highest for Crudia amazonica with 0.9 g cm-3.

NDT to identify biological damage in wood

Nondestructive techniques are widely used to assess existing timber structures. The models proposed for these methods are usually performed in the laboratory using small clear wood specimens. But in real situations many anomalies, defects and biological damage are found in wood. In these cases the existing models only indicate that the values are outside normality without providing any other information. To solve this problem, a study of non-destructive probing methods for wood was performed, testing the behaviour of four different techniques (penetration resistance, pullout resistance, drill resistance and chip drill extraction) on wood samples with different biological damage, simulating an in-situ test. The wood samples were obtained from existing Spanish timber structures with biotic damage caused by borer insects, termites, brown rot and white rot. The study concludes that all of the methods offer more or less detailed information about the degree of deterioration of wood, but that the first two methods (penetration and pullout resistance) cannot distinguish between pathologies. On the other hand, drill resistance and chip drill extraction make it possible to differentiate pathologies and even to identify species or damage location. Finally, the techniques used were compared to characterize their advantages and disadvantages.

Induction of a gloverin-like antimicrobial polypeptide in the sugarcane borer Diatraea saccharalis challenged by septic injury

Diatraea saccharalis (Fabricius, 1794) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) is an important pest for Brazilian sugarcane. In the present study, we detected two distinct spots in hemolymph from septic injured larvae (HDs1 and HDs2), which are separated by 2DE gel electrophoresis. Both spots were subjected to in-gel tryptic digestion and MALDI-TOF/TOF analysis, which revealed the sequence VFGTLGSDDSGLFGK present in both HDs1 and HDs2. This sequence had homology and 80% identity with specific Lepidoptera antimicrobial peptides called gloverins. Analyses using the ImageMaster 2D software showed pI 8.94 of the HDs1 spot, which is similar to that described to Hyalophora gloveri gloverin (pI 8.5). Moreover, the 14-kDa molecular mass of the spot HDs1 is compatible to that of gloverins isolated from the hemolymph of Trichoplusia ni, Helicoverpa armigera and H. gloveri. Antimicrobial assays with partially purified fractions containing the HDs1 and HDs2 polypeptides demonstrated activity against Escherichia coli. This is the first report of antimicrobial polypeptides in D. saccharalis, and the identification of these peptides may help in the generation of new strategies to control this pest.

Association of the borer Spermophthorus apuleiae (Coleoptera; Curculionidae; Scolytinae) with the "pau-ferro" tree Caesalpinia ferrea (Leguminosae)

The weevil subfamily Scolytinae includes beetles which may feed on the bark, trunk or roots of both live and dead trees and are sometimes considered forest and silvicultural pests. Less frequently, some species feed on seeds and may be cause economic losses when associated to plant cultivars. Spermophthorus apuleiae Costa-Lima is a Neotropical Scolytinae formerly recorded to be "associated" with seeds of Caesalpinia ferrea var. leiostachya Benth, a Brazilian tree popularly known in Portuguese as "pau-ferro". Hitherto, it was not clear whether these beetles actually feed on the seeds of that plant. In order to investigate the ability of S. apuleiae to feed on seeds of "pau-ferro", observations were done and colonies of these beetles were established. Both in the field and in captivity the beetles were not observed feeding on the seeds. Even when beetles were exposed to seeds as the only source of food they were incapable of boring or eating the seeds and died. Our data therefore suggest that S. apuleiae is a frugivorous species which peculiarly does not eat seeds of "pau-ferro".

WOOD DENSITY VARIATION AND TREE RING DEMARCATION IN Gmelina arborea TREES USING X-RAY DENSITOMETRY

Due to its relationship with other properties, wood density is the main wood quality parameter. Modern, accurate methods - such as X-ray densitometry - are applied to determine the spatial distribution of density in wood sections and to evaluate wood quality. The objectives of this study were to determinate the influence of growing conditions on wood density variation and tree ring demarcation of gmelina trees from fast growing plantations in Costa Rica. The wood density was determined by X-ray densitometry method. Wood samples were cut from gmelina trees and were exposed to low X-rays. The radiographic films were developed and scanned using a 256 gray scale with 1000 dpi resolution and the wood density was determined by CRAD and CERD software. The results showed tree-ring boundaries were distinctly delimited in trees growing in site with rainfall lower than 25 10 mm/year. It was demonstrated that tree age, climatic conditions and management of plantation affects wood density and its variability. The specific effect of variables on wood density was quantified by for multiple regression method. It was determined that tree year explained 25.8% of the total variation of density and 19.9% were caused by climatic condition where the tree growing. Wood density was less affected by the intensity of forest management with 5.9% of total variation.

Variation in the wood anatomical structure of Gmelina arborea (Verbenaceae) trees at different ecological conditions in Costa Rica

The tree Gmelina arborea has been widely introduced in Costa Rica for commercial purposes. This new conditions for melina cause variations on anatomy in secondary xylem of the trees growing in plantations. The objective of the present research was to determine the variation in the anatomy of xylem caused by the ecological conduction variation. Dimensions of fiber, axial parenchyma percentage of cross sections, parameters of vessels and the ray were measured. The results showed that some anatomical characteristics remained stable despite variations of ecological conditions, especially radial parenchyma and anatomical features which were less affected by the altitude. On the other hand, the vessels, axial parenchyma and fiber were less stable because they were affected significantly by the longitude, latitude, altitude and precipitation. Latitude significantly affected vessel percentage, length and diameter of the fiber and lumen. Longitude affected vessel percentage and fiber diameter. Altitude had a significant correlation with the amount of cells at my height. Annual average precipitation affected vessel percentage and diameter, not only of the fiber, but also of the lumen. These results suggest that the new growth conditions of G. arborea trees in Costa Rica have produced an anatomic adaptation.

EFFECT OF FERTILIZATION ON CELL SIZE IN WOOD OF Eucalyptus grandis Hill Ex Maiden

The use of fertilization in forest stands results in yield gains, yet little attention has been directed to its potential effects on the quality of wood produced. Information is scarce about the effect of fertilization on anatomical structures of older Eucalyptus wood. This work aims to study the effect of fertilization on tissue cell size of wood from an Eucalyptus grandis stand at age 21 years, the management system of which is based on selective thinning and fertilizer application at the start of the thinning season. Factors to consider include: presence or absence of fertilizers, two log positions and five radial (pith to bark) positions. Results led to the conclusion that fertilization significantly influenced only vessel frequency. Vessel element length was influenced by tree height. Fiber length, fiber diameter, fiber wall thickness, vessel element length, vessel diameter and vessel frequency were influenced by the radial position of the sample in relation to the log. A positive correlation was observed between fiber length, fiber diameter, fiber wall thickness, vessel element length, vessel diameter, ray width and radial position, while a negative correlation was observed between ray frequency and radial position.

Radial variation of anatomical features, wood density and decay resistance in teak (Tectona grandis) from two qualities of growing sites and two climatic regions of Costa Rica

The objective of this study was to show the radial variation of some anatomic characteristics, wood density and natural durability of teak (Tectona grandis L.F.) growing in Costa Rica. Samples of trees 13 years old were obtained from two growing sites (high and low growing) of plantations established in a humid tropical climate (CHT) and dry tropical climate (CST). The variables measured of the fibers as well as for the rays were not affected by the climate or the type of growing site, except for the length of the fibers. The fibers of teak wood from the best growing site were significantly larger. Vessels were found with a greater frequency for the CST but mostly solitary in comparison with the CBT. Average density, maximum density and the variation within the ring presented a light higher magnitude for the CST. The quality of the growing site did not affect these variables. The resistance of fungus attack was similar in the area of heartwood near the pith compared to the heartwood near the sapwood for all the conditions evaluated. Nevertheless, it was observed in some trees a similar resistance of fungus attack for areas of sapwood compared to similar areas of heartwood.

Relevance of extractives and wood transformation products on the biodegradation of Pinus taeda by Ceriporiopsis subvermispora

Ceriporiopsis subvermispora is a promising white-rot fungus for biopulping. However, the underlying biochemistry involved in lignin removal and insignificant cellulose degradation by this species is not completely understood. This paper addresses this topic focusing on the involvement of ethanol-soluble extractives and wood transformation products in the biodegradation process. Cultures containing ethanol-extracted or in natura wood chips presented similar levels of extracellular enzymes and degradation of wood components. Fe3+-reducing compounds present in undecayed Pinus taeda were rapidly diminished by fungal degradation. Lignin-degradation products released during biodegradation restored part of the Fe3+-reducing activity. However, Fe3+ reduction was ineffective in presence of 0.5 mM oxalate at pH 4.5. Fungal consumption of Fe3+-reducing compounds and secretion of oxalic acid minimized the significance of Fenton`s reaction in the initial stages of wood biotreatment. This would explain limited polysaccharide degradation by the fungus that also lacks a complete set of hydrolytic enzymes. Scientific relevance of the paper: Ceriporiopsis subvermispora is a white-rot fungus suitable for biopulping processes because it degrades lignin selectively and causes significant structural changes on the wood components during the earlier decay stages. However, the intricate mechanism to explain lignin transformation and insignificant cellulose degradation by this species remains poorly understood. Some recent evidences pointed out for lipid peroxidation reactions as all initiating process explaining lignin degradation. On the other hand, alkylitaconic acids produced by the fungus via transformations of fatty acids occurring in wood showed to prevent polysaccharide degradation in Fenton reactions. In this context, one may conclude that the involvement of native wood substances or their transformation products in the overall wood biodegradation process induced by C subvermispora is still a matter of discussion. While free and esterified fatty acids present in wood extractives may be involved in the biosynthesis of alkylitaconic acids and in lipid peroxidation reactions, some extractives and lignin degradation products can reduce Fe3+, providing Fe2+ species needed to form OH radical via Fenton`s reaction. The present study focuses on this topic by evaluating the relevance of ethanol-soluble extractives and wood transformation products on the biodegradation of P. taeda by C subvermispora. For this, solid-state cultures containing ethanol-extracted and in natura wood chips were evaluated in details for up to 4 weeks. (C) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Lignocellulosic polysaccharides and lignin degradation by wood decay fungi: the relevance of nonenzymatic Fenton-based reactions

The brown rot fungus Wolfiporia cocos and the selective white rot fungus Perenniporia medulla-panis produce peptides and phenolate-derivative compounds as low molecular weight Fe(3+)-reductants. Phenolates were the major compounds with Fe(3+)-reducing activity in both fungi and displayed Fe(3+)-reducing activity at pH 2.0 and 4.5 in the absence and presence of oxalic acid. The chemical structures of these compounds were identified. Together with Fe(3+) and H(2)O(2) (mediated Fenton reaction) they produced oxygen radicals that oxidized lignocellulosic polysaccharides and lignin extensively in vitro under conditions similar to those found in vivo. These results indicate that, in addition to the extensively studied Gloeophyllum trabeum-a model brown rot fungus-other brown rot fungi as well as selective white rot fungi, possess the means to promote Fenton chemistry to degrade cellulose and hemicellulose, and to modify lignin. Moreover, new information is provided, particularly regarding how lignin is attacked, and either repolymerized or solubilized depending on the type of fungal attack, and suggests a new pathway for selective white rot degradation of wood. The importance of Fenton reactions mediated by phenolates operating separately or synergistically with carbohydrate-degrading enzymes in brown rot fungi, and lignin-modifying enzymes in white rot fungi is discussed. This research improves our understanding of natural processes in carbon cycling in the environment, which may enable the exploration of novel methods for bioconversion of lignocellulose in the production of biofuels or polymers, in addition to the development of new and better ways to protect wood from degradation by microorganisms.

Use of activated charcoal and ion-exchange resin to cleaN up and concentrate enzymes in extracts from biodegraded wood.

Use of activated charcoal and ion-exchange resin to cleaN up and concentrate enzymes in extracts from biodegraded wood. Ceriporiopsis subvermispora was used for the biodegradation of Eucalyptus grandis chips in the presence or absence of co-substrates (glucose and corn steep liquor) during 7, 14 and 28 days. Afterwards, the biodegraded chips were extracted with 50 mM sodium acetate buffer (pH 5.5) supplemented with 0.01% Tween 60. High activities of manganese peroxidases (MnPs) were observed in all the extracts, both in the absence (430, 765 and 896 UI kg(-1) respectively) and in the presence of co-substrates (1,013; 2,066 and 2,323 UI kg(-1) respectively). The extracts presented a high ratio between absorbances at 280 and 405 nm, indicating a strong abundance of aromatic compounds derived from lignin over heme-peroxidases. Adsorption into activated charcoal showed to be an adequate strategy to reduce the absorbance at 280 urn in all the extracts. Moreover, it allowed to maximize the capacity of an anion exchange resin bed (DEAE-Sepharose) used to concentrate the MnPs present in the extracts. It was concluded that the use of activated charcoal followed by adsorption into DEAE Sepharose is a strategy that can be used to concentrate MnPs in extracts obtained during the biodegradation of E. grandis by C. subvermispora.

Linoleic acid peroxidation and lignin degradation by enzymes produced by Ceriporiopsis subvermispora grown on wood or in submerged liquid cultures

Ceriporiopsis subvermispora is a white-rot fungus used in biopulping processes and seems to use the fatty acid peroxidation reactions initiated by manganese-peroxidase (MnP) to start lignin degradation. The present work shows that C. subvermispora was able to peroxidize unsaturated fatty acids during wood biotreatment under biopulping conditions. In vitro assays showed that the extent of linoleic acid peroxidation was positively correlated with the level of MnP recovered from the biotreated wood chips. Milled wood was treated in vitro by partially purified MnP and linoleic acid. UV spectroscopy and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) showed that soluble compounds similar to lignin were released from the milled wood. SEC data showed a broad elution profile compatible with low molar mass lignin fractions. MnP-treated milled wood was analyzed by thioacidolysis. The yield of thioacidolysis monomers recovered from guaiacyl and syringyl units decreased by 33% and 20% in MnP-treated milled wood, respectively. This has suggested that lignin depolymerization reactions have occurred during the MnP/linoleic acid treatment. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Biomimetic oxidative treatment of spruce wood studied by pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry coupled with multivariate analysis and (13)C-labeled tetramethylammonium hydroxide thermochemolysis: implications for fungal degradation of wood

In this work, pyrolysis-molecular beam mass spectrometry analysis coupled with principal components analysis and (13)C-labeled tetramethylammonium hydroxide thermochemolysis were used to study lignin oxidation, depolymerization, and demethylation of spruce wood treated by biomimetic oxidative systems. Neat Fenton and chelator-mediated Fenton reaction (CMFR) systems as well as cellulosic enzyme treatments were used to mimic the nonenzymatic process involved in wood brown-rot biodegradation. The results suggest that compared with enzymatic processes, Fenton-based treatment more readily opens the structure of the lignocellulosic matrix, freeing cellulose fibrils from the matrix. The results demonstrate that, under the current treatment conditions, Fenton and CMFR treatment cause limited demethoxylation of lignin in the insoluble wood residue. However, analysis of a water-extractable fraction revealed considerable soluble lignin residue structures that had undergone side chain oxidation as well as demethoxylation upon CMFR treatment. This research has implications for our understanding of nonenzymatic degradation of wood and the diffusion of CMFR agents in the wood cell wall during fungal degradation processes.