People and the intertidal : human induced changes, biodiversity loss, livelihood implications and management in the Western Indian Ocean

Vad händer i tidvattenzonen? Var går gränsen mellan land och hav, vad händer i tidvattenzonen och vem ansvarar för detta? I västra Indiska oceanen (VIO) kan avståndet mellan den lägsta nivån för lågvattnet och den högsta nivån för högvattnet vara flera kilometer och nivåskillnaderna upp till 6 meter och detta skapar ett stort och föränderligt område. Syftet med min avhandling är att öka förståelsen för tidvattenzonen i tropiska och subtropiska västra Indiska oceanen. Sammanfattningsvis visar mina studier att det finns ett mycket stort värde i den komplexa tidvattenzonen, men också att det här området hotas från både land och hav, genom t.ex. överexploatering, erosion och föroreningar. Uttnyttjandet av tidvattenzonen är stort och min avhandling har visat att aktiviteter såsom fiske i form av plocking av musslor och andra ryggradslösa djur och hamnaktiviteter påverkar den biologiska mångfalden negativt, vilket leder till försämrad levnadsstandard för resursutnyttjande människor i regionen. För att förbättra situationen krävs det mer forskning, miljöövervakning och bättre förvaltning av tidvattenzonen. Experter i regionen har rangordnat förslag på förvaltningsstrategier som skulle kunna testas för att förbättra miljön och skapa ett mer hållbart nyttjande. Avhandlingen visar även att det är möjligt att använda fjärranalysteknik såsom satellitbildsanalys för att kvantifiera mängden sjögräsvegetation (i form av biomassa), vilket kan ha stor betydelse för att förbättra storskalig miljöövervakning av kustnära naturtyper (habitat). I avhandlingsarbetet har jag använt mig av ett multidisciplinärt tillvägagångssätt och använt metoder såsom ekologisk och biologisk provtagning, intervjuer, observationer, diskussionsgrupper, frågeformulär och fjärranalys. Resultaten presenterade i denna avhandling ger en ökad kunskap om tidvattenzonen i utvecklingsländerna inom VIO-regionen som kan användas för att initiera och fortsätta att utveckla hållbara förvaltningsstrategier av biologiska resurser.

The influence of simulated exploitation onPatella vulgatapopulations: protandric sex change is size-dependent

Grazing mollusks are used as a food resource worldwide, and limpets are harvested commercially for both local consumption and export in several countries. This study describes a field experiment to assess the effects of simulated human exploitation of limpets Patella vulgata on their population ecology in terms of protandry (age-related sex change from male to female), growth, recruitment, migration, and density regulation. Limpet populations at two locations in southwest England were artificially exploited by systematic removal of the largest individuals for 18 months in plots assigned to three treatments at each site: no (control), low, and high exploitation. The shell size at sex change (L50: the size at which there is a 50:50 sex ratio) decreased in response to the exploitation treatments, as did the mean shell size of sexual stages. Size-dependent sex change was indicated by L50 occurring at smaller sizes in treatments than controls, suggesting an earlier switch to females. Mean shell size of P. vulgata neuters changed little under different levels of exploitation, while males and females both decreased markedly in size with exploitation. No differences were detected in the relative abundances of sexual stages, indicating some compensation for the removal of the bigger individuals via recruitment and sex change as no migratory patterns were detected between treatments. At the end of the experiment, 0–15 mm recruits were more abundant at one of the locations but no differences were detected between treatments. We conclude that sex change in P. vulgata can be induced at smaller sizes by reductions in density of the largest individuals reducing interage class competition. Knowledge of sex-change adaptation in exploited limpet populations should underpin strategies to counteract population decline and improve rocky shore conservation and resource management.

The influence of simulated exploitation onPatella vulgatapopulations: protandric sex change is size-dependent

Grazing mollusks are used as a food resource worldwide, and limpets are harvested commercially for both local consumption and export in several countries. This study describes a field experiment to assess the effects of simulated human exploitation of limpets Patella vulgata on their population ecology in terms of protandry (age-related sex change from male to female), growth, recruitment, migration, and density regulation. Limpet populations at two locations in southwest England were artificially exploited by systematic removal of the largest individuals for 18 months in plots assigned to three treatments at each site: no (control), low, and high exploitation. The shell size at sex change (L50: the size at which there is a 50:50 sex ratio) decreased in response to the exploitation treatments, as did the mean shell size of sexual stages. Size-dependent sex change was indicated by L50 occurring at smaller sizes in treatments than controls, suggesting an earlier switch to females. Mean shell size of P. vulgata neuters changed little under different levels of exploitation, while males and females both decreased markedly in size with exploitation. No differences were detected in the relative abundances of sexual stages, indicating some compensation for the removal of the bigger individuals via recruitment and sex change as no migratory patterns were detected between treatments. At the end of the experiment, 0–15 mm recruits were more abundant at one of the locations but no differences were detected between treatments. We conclude that sex change in P. vulgata can be induced at smaller sizes by reductions in density of the largest individuals reducing interage class competition. Knowledge of sex-change adaptation in exploited limpet populations should underpin strategies to counteract population decline and improve rocky shore conservation and resource management.

Global trajectories of the long-term decline of coral reef ecosystems

Degradation of coral reef ecosystems began centuries ago, but there is no global summary of the magnitude of change. We compiled records, extending back thousands of years, of the status and trends of seven major guilds of carnivores, herbivores, and architectural species from 14 regions. Large animals declined before small animals and architectural species, and Atlantic reefs declined before reefs in the Red Sea and Australia, but the trajectories of decline were markedly similar worldwide. All reefs were substantially degraded long before outbreaks of coral disease and bleaching. Regardless of these new threats, reefs will not survive without immediate protection from human exploitation over large spatial scales.

On the intrinsic capacity for increase of Australian flying-foxes (Pteropus spp., Megachiroptera)

In the reproductive biology of organisms, a continuum exists from "highly reproductive species" at one end to "survivor species" at the other end. Among other factors, the position of a species along this continuum affects its sensitivity to human exploitation and its vulnerability to extinction. Flying foxes are long-lived, seasonal breeders, with a rigid, well-defined breeding season that is largely or wholly genetically determined. Unlike opportunistic, highly reproductive species, such as rabbits or mice, female flying foxes are unable to produce viable young before their second or third year of life, and are then capable of producing just one young per year. Such a breeding strategy will be successful only if flying-foxes are long-lived and suffer naturally low mortality rates. In this paper, we assess the vulnerability of flying foxes to extinction, using basic parameters of reproduction observed in the wild, and in captive breeding colonies of P. poliocephalus, P. alecto and P. scapulatus, and survival rates that are likely to apply to Australian conditions. Our models show explicitly that flying-fox populations have a very low capacity for increase, even under the most ideal conditions. The implications of our models are discussed in reference to the long-term management and conservation needs of Australian flying foxes. We conclude that current death-rates of flying-foxes in NSW and Queensland fruit orchards are putting state populations at serious risk.

Estudi i revalorització dels paisatges culturals de l'alta muntanya pirinenca: la vall del Madriu (Andorra), patrimoni de la humanitat de la UNESCO

Estudi arqueològic integrat de la vall del Madriu-Perafita-Claror (Andorra) iniciat al 2004 sota la coordinació de l’ICAC. L’estudi s’insereix en la declaració de la vall com a Patrimoni de la Humanitat (UNESCO). Las recerques s’enfoquen des de l’Arqueologia del Paisatge, de manera diacrònica i pluridisciplinar, fent especial atenció a les relacions de les societats amb el medi. Les restes arqueològiques treballades s’associen a activitats ramaderes, metal•lúrgiques i de carboneig. La recerca paleoecològica se centra en sediments lacustres, torbosos i arqueològics. L’any 2006, s’han analitzat a alta resolució temporal dues seqüencies palinològiques: l’estany Blau (2471 m) i la torbera de Bosc dels Estanyons (2180 m), obtenint les principals fases d’explotació i antropització d’aquest espai altimontà, així com l’evolució del paisatge en els darrers 11000 anys . La campanya de camp s’ha centrat en l’obtenció de mostres de pluja pol•línica referencial a la vall i en el sondatge de l’estany Forcat (2539 m). Un total de tres mostres han estat enviades a datar per C14. Els treballs arqueològics s’han centrat en l’excavació de sondejos de diagnòstic als jaciments de Basses de Setut (2325 m) i Pleta de les Bacives ( 2530 m) i en la realització de prospeccions a les capçaleres de les valls de Madriu, Perafita i Claror. S’han documentat estructures arqueològiques i s’han realitzat estudis antracològics dels sediments excavats en aquestes. S’ha realitzat un transecte altitudinal de carboneres al llarg de la vall per tal de enregistrar una major diversitat cronològica dels espais de carboneig. S’han enviat datacions C14 per tal de determinar la cronologia de les estructures. Les datacions del 2005 mostren una intensa ocupació ramadera i de carboneig a partir del segle XIV, en època baixmedieval i moderna, així com un establiment metal·lúrgic d’època romana.

Diversity of social wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Polistinae) in three fragments of semideciduous seasonal forest in the northwest of São Paulo State, Brazil

Human exploitation of the forest in the northwest of São Paulo State has generated enormous fragmentation of that forest. Such disturbance has reduced the populations of insects in general. This work was a survey of social wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae; Polistinae) in three areas in different stages of regeneration: Paulo de Faria - SP (435 ha), Pindorama - SP (128 ha) and Neves Paulista - SP (1 ha). These three areas were chosen for comparative purposes. To capture the wasps, it was used: active collecting with attractant liquid (solution of water, salt and sugar) with the aid of a dorsal spray bag. During the period from July to December 2006, 414 social wasps were collected in Paulo de Faria, constituting seven species belonging to four genera; 111 social wasps were collected in Pindorama, constituting six species belonging to four genera, and 129 social wasps were collected in Neves Paulista constituting 12 species belonging to seven genera. In order to compare these three areas ecological indexes were calculated. Neves Paulista had the greatest diversity, and Paulo de Faria presented greater abundance. These factors were probably caused by neighboring areas and ecological corridors, which were limited in Paulo de Faria and Pindorama.

Comparación de los impactos ambientales y aspectos socioeconómicos de las cadenas de producción de anchoveta

Se presentan los primeros resultados del programa de investigación comparativo sobre las tres flotas pesqueras dedicadas a la extracción de anchoveta en el mar peruano (industrial de acero, industrial de madera y artesanal), así como sus cadenas de suministro hasta el abastecimiento del consumidor. El presente trabajo tiene por objetivo estudiar la sostenibilidad de las actividades involucradas en el suministro de proteínas, considerándose los impactos ambientales y los aspectos socio-económicos. Se realizó un esquema simple de un ecosistema pelágico de afloramiento y de los principales flujos de materia y energía, producto de la explotación humana. El esquema representa la situación peruana y muestra el alto nivel de antropización del sistema, debido al uso de energías fósiles, así como a la explotación y transformación tecnológica de recursos naturales terrestres (minerales, madera, etc.). Por otro lado, se muestra que la explotación del ecosistema marino peruano tiene repercusiones sobre el resto del planeta, debido a la exportación de harina y aceite de pescado destinados principalmente a actividades acuícolas. La flota anchovetera peruana se caracteriza por un amplio rango de tamaño de embarcaciones (de 2 a 600 t de capacidad de bodega); las de tamaño intermedio (30-100 t) son las más numerosas, pero las más grandes (>300 t) son las que acumulan el mayor poder de pesca. Los análisis sobre precios y distribución de la renta entre tripulantes y armadores muestran que, a pesar de que la mayor pesca de anchoveta es realizada por la flota industrial de acero, dedicada a la producción de harina y aceite de pescado y que tiene mayor eficiencia de captura por tripulante, la contribución de la pesca industrial de madera es significativa, pues genera mayor empleo por tonelada capturada y, posiblemente, no ocasiona mayor uso de energía. La pesca artesanal de anchoveta es la menos eficiente energéticamente y por tripulante, pero genera mucho más empleo por tonelada capturada; esta pesca representa menos del 3% de la producción total, del cual sólo una fracción va al consumo humano directo (CHD). Desde el año 2000, los precios de harina y aceite de pescado en los mercados internacionales se han incrementado, debido al aumento de la demanda asiática y al precio del combustible. Se debe estudiar en qué medida este aumento desfavorece el consumo interno de estos productos, así como el uso de anchoveta para CHD. Este análisis deberá ser validado y complementado con información de impacto ambiental; y podrían contribuir a la toma de decisión participativa, para un balance óptimo entre los tres segmentos de la flota y las cadenas de producción asociadas.

Longer and less overlapping food webs in anthropogenically disturbed marine ecosystems: confirmations from the past

The human exploitation of marine resources is characterised by the preferential removal of the largest species. Although this is expected to modify the structure of food webs, we have a relatively poor understanding of the potential consequences of such alteration. Here, we take advantage of a collection of ancient consumer tissues, using stable isotope analysis and SIBER to assess changes in the structure of coastal marine food webs in the South-western Atlantic through the second half of the Holocene as a result of the sequential exploitation of marine resources by hunter-gatherers, western sealers and modern fishermen. Samples were collected from shell middens and museums. Shells of both modern and archaeological intertidal herbivorous molluscs were used to reconstruct changes in the stable isotopic baseline, while modern and archaeological bones of the South American sea lion Otaria flavescens, South American fur seal Arctocephalus australis and Magellanic penguin Spheniscus magellanicus were used to analyse changes in the structure of the community of top predators. We found that ancient food webs were shorter, more redundant and more overlapping than current ones, both in northern-central Patagonia and southern Patagonia. These surprising results may be best explained by the huge impact of western sealing on pinnipeds during the fur trade period, rather than the impact of fishing on fish populations. As a consequence, the populations of pinnipeds at the end of the sealing period were likely well below the ecosystem's carrying capacity, which resulted in a release of intraspecific competition and a shift towards larger and higher trophic level prey. This in turn led to longer and less overlapping food webs.

Dynamique végétale récente du complexe tourbeux des Tourbières-de-Lanoraie (Québec).

Les milieux humides sont parmi les écosystèmes les plus menacés de la planète que ce soit par le drainage, l’exploitation des ressources naturelles ou les changements climatiques. Dans une optique de conservation, il est primordial de comprendre la part des facteurs autogènes et allogènes dans la dynamique temporelle de ces écosystèmes. Dans ce contexte, les objectifs de cette étude étaient de : 1) reconstituer la dynamique des communautés végétales de deux secteurs ombrotrophes du complexe de milieux humides des Tourbières-de-Lanoraie au cours des trois derniers millénaires et 2) déterminer l’impact des activités humaines depuis les 500 dernières années sur cette dynamique. Pour ce faire, une approche paléoécologique pluridisciplinaire a été utilisée. La dynamique végétale a été semblable dans les deux secteurs étudiés. Elle a d’abord été caractérisée par une ombrotrophication des systèmes tourbeux puis par une transformation graduelle d’une tourbière ombrotrophe ouverte, dominées par les sphaignes et les éricacées, vers des tourbières ombrotrophes forestières. L’ombrotrophication se serait amorcée peu avant le Petit-Âge glaciaire (1570-1850 AD), période associée à des conditions plus fraiches et plus sèches. Le développement de la phase forestière serait beaucoup plus récent (début 1900) et semble être associé à une période d’intensification de l’empreinte anthropique dans le paysage, notamment du drainage. Ce travail montre que les perturbations anthropiques constituent depuis le début du XXème siècle le moteur principal de la dynamique de la végétation des deux secteurs étudiés.

Extinction processes in hotspots of avian biodiversity and the targeting of pre-emptive conservation action

Hot spots of endemism are regarded as important global sites for conservation as they are rich in threatened endemic species and currently experiencing extensive habitat loss. Targeting pre-emptive conservation action to sites that are currently relatively intact but which would be vulnerable to particular human activities if they occurred in the future is, however, also valuable but has received less attention. Here, we address this issue by using data on Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs). First, we identify the ecological factors that affect extinction risk in the face of particular human activities, and then use these insights to identify EBAs that should be priorities for pre-emptive conservation action. Threatened endemic species in EBAs are significantly more likely to be habitat specialists or relatively large-bodied than non-threatened species, when compared across avian families. Increasing habitat loss causes a significant increase in extinction risk among habitat specialists, but we found no evidence to suggest that the presence of alien species/human exploitation causes a significant increase in extinction risk among large-bodied species. This suggests that these particular human activities are contributing to high extinction risk among habitat specialists, but not among large-bodied species. Based on these analyses, we identify 39 EBAs containing 570 species (24% of the total in EBAs) that are not currently threatened with severe habitat loss, but would be ecologically vulnerable to future habitat loss should it occur. We show that these sites tend to be poorly represented in existing priority setting exercises involving hot spots, suggesting that vulnerability must be explicitly included within these exercises if such sites are to be adequately protected.

Extinction processes in hot spots of avian biodiversity and the targeting of pre-emptive conservation action

Hot spots of endemism are regarded as important global sites for conservation as they are rich in threatened endemic species and currently experiencing extensive habitat loss. Targeting pre-emptive conservation action to sites that are currently relatively intact but which would be vulnerable to particular human activities if they occurred in the future is, however, also valuable but has received less attention. Here, we address this issue by using data on Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs). First, we identify the ecological factors that affect extinction risk in the face of particular human activities, and then use these insights to identify EBAs that should be priorities for pre-emptive conservation action. Threatened endemic species in EBAs are significantly more likely to be habitat specialists or relatively large-bodied than non-threatened species, when compared across avian families. Increasing habitat loss causes a significant increase in extinction risk among habitat specialists, but we found no evidence to suggest that the presence of alien species/human exploitation causes a significant increase in extinction risk among large-bodied species. This suggests that these particular human activities are contributing to high extinction risk among habitat specialists, but not among large-bodied species. Based on these analyses, we identify 39 EBAs containing 570 species (24% of the total in EBAs) that are not currently threatened with severe habitat loss, but would be ecologically vulnerable to future habitat loss should it occur. We show that these sites tend to be poorly represented in existing priority setting exercises involving hot spots, suggesting that vulnerability must be explicitly included within these exercises if such sites are to be adequately protected.

10,000 years in the life of the river Wandle: excavations at the former Vinamul site, Butter Hill, Wallington

Archaeological excavations alongside the river Wandle in Wallington produced evidence of the environmental history and human exploitation of the area. The recovery of a large assemblage of struck flint provided information on the nature of the prehistoric activities represented, while a detailed environmental archaeological programme permitted an examination of both the local sediment successions and thus an opportunity to reconstruct the environmental history of the site. The site revealed a complex sedimentary sequence deposited in riverine conditions, commencing during the early Holocene (from c 10,000 years before present) and continuing through the late Holocene (c last 3000 years). Large flint nodules were washed by the river onto the site where they were procured and worked by Mesolithic and Bronze Age communities. Potentially usable nodules had been tested, and suitable pieces completely reduced, while the majority of useful flakes and blades had been removed for use elsewhere. Small numbers of retouched pieces, such as scrapers and piercers, indicate that domestic activities took place nearby. By the Saxon period the site had begun to stabilise, although it remained marshy and probably peripheral to habitation. Two pits from this period were excavated, one of which contained an antler pick. A small quantity of cereal grain also suggests that cultivated land lay in the vicinity of the site. During the 19th century a mill race was dug across the site, redirecting water from the river Wandle, which resulted in episodic flooding.

Diversity of social wasps (Hymenoptera, Vespidae, Polistinae) in three fragments of semideciduous seasonal forest in the northwest of São Paulo State, Brazil

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Distribution and abundance of four caiman species (Crocodylia: Alligatoridae) in Jaú National Park, Amazonas, Brazil

Jaú National Park is a large rain forest reserve that contains small populations of four caiman species. We sampled crocodilian populations during 30 surveys over a period of four years in five study areas. We found the mean abundance of caiman species to be very low (1.0 ± 0.5 caiman/km of shoreline), independent of habitat type (river, stream or lake) and season. While abundance was almost equal, the species' composition varied in different waterbody and study areas. We analysed the structure similarity of this assemblage. Lake and river habitats were the most similar habitats, and inhabited by at least two species, mainly Caiman crocodilus and Melanosuchus niger. However, those species can also inhabit streams. Streams were the most dissimilar habitats studied and also had two other species: Paleosuchus trigonalus and P. palpebrosus. The structure of these assemblage does not suggest a pattern of species associated and separated by habitat. Trends in species relationships had a negative correlation with species of similar size, C. crocodilus and P. trigonatus, and an apparent complete exclusion of M. niger and P. trigonatus. Microhabitat analysis suggests a slender habitat partitioning: P. trigonatus was absent from river and lake lgapo (flooded forest), but frequent in stream Igapó. This species was the most terrestrial and found in microhabitats similar to C crocodilus (shallow waters, slow current). Melanosuchus niger inhabits deep, fast moving waters in different study areas Despite inhabiting the same waterbodies in many surveys, M. niger and C. crocodilus did not share the same microhabitats. Paleosuchus palpebrosus was observed only in running waters and never in stagnant lake habitats. Cluster analysis revealed three survey groups: two constitute a mosaic in floodplains. (a) a cluster with both M. niger and C crocodilus, and another (b) with only C. crocodilus. A third cluster (c) included more species, and the presence of Paleosuchus species. There was no significant difference among wariness of caimans between disturbed and undisturbed localities. However, there was a clear trend to increase wariness during the course of consecutive surveys at four localities, suggesting that we, more than local inhabitants, had disturbed caimans. The factors that are limiting caiman populations can be independent of human exploitation. Currently in Amazonia, increased the pressure of hunting, habitat loss and habitat alteration, and there is no evidence of widespread recovery of caiman populations. In large reserves as Jaú without many disturbance, most caiman populations can be low density, suggesting that in blackwater environments their recovery from exploitation should be very slow.