The role of stable nitroxyl radical precursors as antioxidants in polyolefins

Various 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl piperidines and their N-alkyl derivatives of stable nitroxyl radical precursors containing acrylic(s) and methacrylic(s) groups were reactively processed in the presence of a peroxide as bound-antioxidant masterbatches for polyolefin stabilisation. It was found that grafting of the antioxidant monomers onto the polymer backbone was inevitably in competition with homopolymerisation of the monomers as well as melt degradation of the polymer and other side reactions. As previously reported, binding efficiency of bisacrylic nitroxyl precursor was maximum due to formation of unextractable homopolymer of the antioxidant. On the other hand, the binding efficiency of monoacrylic derivatives was low and the homopolymers were found extractable, which suggests that the bound monoacrylic derivatives are entirely grafted onto the polyolefin backbone. Application of bis and tri-functional coagents gave improved binding efficiency of the monoacrylic monomers. This may be due to copolymerisation of the antioxidants with the coagents and grafting of the copolymers onto the polymer backbone. Comparison of photostabilising activity of the fully extracted bound antioxidants to those of the corresponding unbound analogous showed lower results for the former. However, thermal stabilising activity of the bound antioxidants was higher than that of the unbound analogous due to better substantivity. Analysis using physical techniques and GPC for molecular weight distribution of masterbatches containing the bound monoacrylic antioxidants showed formation of high molecular weight products. Model reaction of a secondary amine derivative in liquid hydrocarbon and analysis of the product using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy indicated a possibility of side reaction, i.e. involvement of the amine active group (>N-H) of the antioxidant in the binding process to form the high molecular weight product. Implementation of various N-alkylated derivatives did not inhibit the side reaction. The photostabilising activity of the bound-antioxidants can be improved when applied in conjunction with small amounts of a benzophenone uv-stabiliser. The synergistic stabilising activity, however, was diminished when the uv-stabiliser was removed from the system during the service time. Nitroxyl precursors containing methacrylic group(s) gave lower binding efficiency than the corresponding acrylic derivatives. Reversible deploymerisation of the grafted methacrylic antioxidants may be responsible for this. Bis and tris-acrylic coagents improved the binding efficiency, and the presence of methacrylic group improved stabilising activity of the antioxidants. N-methyl derivatives were found to exhibit better stabilising activity than their parent secondary amine derivatives.

Reactive processing of polyolefins using antioxidant systems

Various monoacrylic compounds containing a hindered phenol function (e.g.3,5-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxy benzyl alcohol, DBBA and vinyl-3-[3',5'-di-tert.-butyl-4-hydroxy phenyl] propionate, VDBP), and a benzophenone function (2-hydroxy-4-[beta hydroxy ethoxy] benzophenone, HAEB) were synthesised and used as reactive antioxidants (AO's) for polypropylene (PP). These compounds were reacted with PP melt in the presence of low concentration of a free radical generator such a peroxide (reactive processing) to produce bound-antioxidant concentrates. The binding reaction of these AO's onto PP was found to be low and this was shown to be mainly due to competing reactions such as homopolymerisation of the antioxidant. At high concentrations of peroxide, higher binding efficiency resulted, but, this was accompanied by melt degradation of the polymer. In a special reactive processing procedure, a di- or a trifunctional reactant (referred to as coagent), e.g.tri-methylol propane tri-acrylate, Tris, and Divinyl benzene, DVB, were used with the antioxidant and this has led to an enhanced efficiency of the grating reaction of antioxidants on the polymer in the melt. The evidence suggests that this is due to copolymerisation of the antioxidants with the coagent as well as grafting of the copolymers onto the polymer backbone. Although the 'bound' AO's containing a UV stabilising function showed lower overall stabilisation effect than the unbound analogues before extraction, they were still much more effective when subjected to exhaustive solvent extraction. Furthermore, a very effective synergistic stabilising activity when two reactive AO's containing thermal and UV stabilising functions e.g. DBBA and HAEB, were reactively processed with PP in the presence of a coagent. The stabilising effectiveness of such a synergist was much higher than that of the unbound analogues both before and after extraction. Analysis using the GPC technique of concentrates containing bound-DBBA processed in the presence of Tris coagent showed higher molecular weight (Mn), compared to that of a polymer processed without the coagent, but was still lower than that of the control processed PP with no additives. This indicates that Tris coagent may inhibit further melt degradation of the polymer. Model reactions of DBBA in liquid hydrocarbon (decalin) and analysis of the products using FTIR and NMR spectroscopy showed the formation of grafted DBBA onto decalin molecules as well as homopolymerisation of the AO. In the presence of Tris coagent, copolymerisation of DBBA with the Tris inevitably occured; which was followed by grafting of the copolymer onto the decalin, FTIR and NMR results of the polymer concentrates containing bound-DBBA processed with and without Tris, showed similar behaviour as the above model reactions. This evidence supports the effect of Tris in enhancing the efficiency of the reaction of DBBA in the polymer melt. Reactive procesing of HAEB in polymer melts exhibited crosslinking formation In the early stages of the reaction, however, in the final stage, the crosslinked structure was 'broken down' or rearranged to give an almost gel free polymer with high antioxidant binding efficiency.

The microbial ecology of cow slurry in vermiculture beds

The suitability of cow slurry as a substrate for vermicomposting by Eisenia fetida was investigated. Particular attention was given to the effects of the earthworm on the decomposition and stabilisation of the slurry; and to the interactions between E. fetida and the microflora of the substrate. Assessment of the chemical and microbiological changes in cow slurry stored under forced aeration, and subsequently in shallow trays, showed that neither method was suitable for the treatment of slurry. A comparison of two methods of vermicomposting showed that top-feeding of slurry was more efficient in promoting earthworm growth and cocoon production than the mixing of slurry with solid materials. Management practices were found to have an important influence on the efficiency of the process. An investigation o:f the effect of E. fetida. on the decomposition of slurry indicated that the presence of this earthworm enhanced the stabilisation of the substrate and increased the plant-available nitrogen content. Specific nutritional interactions were observed between E. fetida and micro-organisms in sand/cellulose microcosms. The earthworms were found to be feeding directly upon the cells of certain micro-organisms. Other species were found to be toxic to E. fetida.. A technique was developed :for the production of axenic E. fetida., and the use of such earthworms in :feeding experiments confirmed the importance of some micro-organisms in earthworm nutrition. The seeding of vermiculture beds with one such micro-organism stimulated earthworm growth and consumption of the substrate. Vermicomposted mixtures of cow slurry and spent mushroom compost were shown to have potential application as casing materials in mushroom cultivation. The findings of this study indicate the suitability of vermicomposting as a method for the stabilisation of intensively-produced cow slurry, and give some indication of the importance of micro-organisms in the nutrition of E. fetida.

Synthesis of triplex-forming oligonucleotide conjugates of the anticancer drug temodal

Covalent attachment of the anticancer drugs temozolomide (Temodal) and mitozolomide to triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) is a potential way of targeting these alkylating agents to specific gene sequences to maximise site-selectivity. In this work, polypyrimidine TFO conjugates of both drugs were synthesised and targeted to duplex DNA in an attempt to effect site-specific alkylation of guanine residues. Concurrently, in an attempt to enhance the triple helix stability of TFOs at neutral pH, the thermal stabilities of triplexes formed from TFOs containing isoguanine, 2-O-benzyl- and 2-O-allyl-adenine were evaluated. A novel cleavage and deprotection procedure was developed which allowed for the solid phase synthesis of the base-sensitive TFO-drug conjugates using a recently developed silyl-linked controlled pore glass (SLCPG) support. Covalent attachment of either temozolomide or mitozolomide at the 5'-end of TFO conjugates caused no destabilisation of the triplexes studied. The synthesis of a phosphoramidite derivative of mitozolomide enabled direct incorporation of this reagent into a model sequence during DNA synthesis. After cleavage and deprotection of the TFO-drug conjugate, the 5'-end mitozolomide residue was found to have decomposed presumably as a result of ring-opening of the tetrazinone ring. The base-sensitive antibacterial and antitumour agent, metronidazole, was also successfully incorporated at the 5'-end of the oligonucleotide d(T8) using conventional methods. Two C2-substituted derivatives of 2'-deoxyadenosine containing 2-O-benzyl and 2-O-allyl groups were synthesised. Hydrogenolysis of the 2-O-benzyl analogue provided a useful route, amenable to scale-up, for the synthesis of the rare nucleoside 2'-deoxyisoguanosine (isoG). Both the 2-O-allyl and 2-O-benzyl derivatives were incorporated into TFO sequences using phosphoramidite methodology. Thermal melting experiments showed that the 2-O-allyl and 2-O-benzyl groups caused marked destabilisation of the triple helices studied, in contrast to hexose-DNA duplexes, where aralkyl substituents caused significant stabilisation of duplexes. TFOs containing isoG were synthesised by Pd(O)-catalysed deallylation of 2-0-allyl adenine residues. These sequences containing isoG, in its N3- or 02-H tautomeric form, formed triple helices which were equally as stable as those containing adenine.

Prodrugs of antiviral phosphonates

Phosphonoformate and phosphonoacetate are effective antiviral agents, however they are charged at physiological pH and as such penetration into cells and diffusion across the blood-brain bamer is limited. In an attempt to increase the lipophilicity and improve the transport properties of these molecules, prodrugs were synthesised and their stabilities and reconversion to the parent compound subsequently investigated by the techniques of 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and high performance liquid Chromatography. A series of 4-substituted dibenzyl (methoxycarbonyl)phosphonates were prepared and found to be hydrolytically unstable giving predominantly the diesters, benzyl (methoxycarbonyl)phosphonates. This instability arose from the electron-withdrawing effect of the carbonyl group promoting nucleophilic attack at phosphorus. It was possible to influence the mechanism and, to some extent, the rate of hydrolysis of the phosphonoformate triesters to the diesters by varying the electronic nature of the substituent in the 4-position of the aromatic ring. Strongly electron-withdrawing groups increased the sensitivity of phosphorus to nucleophilic attack, thus promoting P-O .bond cleavage and rapid hydrolysis. Conversely, weakly electron-withdrawing substituents encouraged C-O bond fission, presumably through resonance stabilisation of the benzyl carbonium ion. The loss of the protecting group on phosphorus was in competition with nucleophilic attack at the carbonyl group, resulting in P-C bond cleavage with dibenzyl phosphite formation. The high instability and P-C bond fission make triesters unsuitable prodrug forms of phosphonoformate. A range of chemically stable triesters of phosphonoacetate were synthesised and their bioactivation investigated. Di(benzoyloxymethyl) (methoxycarbonylmethyl)phosphonates degraded to the relevant benzoyloxymethyl (methoxycarbonylmethyl)phosphonate in the presence of esterase. The enzymatic activation was restricted to the removal of only one protecting group from phosphorus, most likely due to the close proximity of the benzoyloxy ester function to the anionic charge on the diester. However, in similar systems di(4-alkanoyloxybenzyl) (methoxycarbonylmethyl)phosphonates degraded in the presence of esterase with the loss of both protecting groups on phosphorus to give the monoester, (methoxycarbonylmethyl)phosphonate, via the intermediary of the unstable 4-hydroxy benzyl esters. The methoxycarbonyl function remained intact. The rate of enzymatic hydrolysis and subsequent removal of the protecting groups on phosphorus was dependent on the nature of the alkanoyl group and was most rapid for the 4-nbutanoyloxybenzyl and 4-iso-butanoyloxybenzyl esters of phosphonoacetate. This provides a strategy for the design of a prodrug with sufficient stability in plasma to reach the central nervous system in high concentration, wherein rapid metabolism to the active drug by brain-associated enzymes occurs.

Local and systemic delivery of a novel group of inhibitors of transglutaminase enzyme: A potential approach for treating of catheter-related complications and liver fibrosis

The present thesis investigates targeted (locally and systemically) delivery of a novel group of inhibitors of enzyme transglutaminases (TGs). TGs are a widely distributed group of enzymes that catalyse the formation of isopeptide bonds between the y-carboxamide group of protein-bound glutamines and the a-amino group of protein-bound lysines or polyamines. The first group of the novel inhibitors tested were the tluorescently labelled inhibitors of Factor XIIIa (FXIIIa). These small, non-toxic inhibitors have the potential to prevent stabilisation of thrombi by FXIIIa and consequently increase the natural rate of thrombolysis, in addition it reduces staphylococcal colonisation of catheters by inhibiting their FXIIIa¬mediated cross-linking to blood clot proteins on the central venous catheter (CVCs) surface. The aim of this work was to incorporate the FXIIIa inhibitor either within coating of polyurethane (PU) catheters or to integrate it into silicone catheters, so as to reduce the incidence of thrombotic occlusion and associated bacterial infection in CVCs. The initial work focused on the incorporation of FXIIIa inhibitors within polymeric coatings of PU catheters. After defining the key characteristics desired for an effective polymeric-coating, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) or their combination were studies as polymers of choice for coating of the catheters_ The coating was conducted by dip-coating method in a polymer solution containing the inhibitor. Upon incubation of the inhibitor-and polymer-coated strips in buffer, PVP was dissolved instantly, generating fast and significant drug release, whilst PLGA did not dissolve, yielding a slow and an insufficient amount of drug release. Nevertheless, the drug release profile was enhanced upon employing a blend solution of PVP and PLGA. The second part of the study was to incorporate the FXIIIa inhibitor into a silicone elastomer; results demonstrated that FXIIIa inhibitor can be incorporated and released from silicone by using citric acid (CA) and sodium bicarbonate (SB) as additives and the drug release rate can be controlled by the amount of incorporated additives in the silicone matrix. Furthermore, it was deemed that the inhibitor was still biologically active subsequent to being released from the silicone elastomer strips. Morphological analysis confirmed the formation of channels and cracks inside the specimens upon the addition of CA and SB. Nevertheless, the tensile strength, in addition to Young's modulus of silicone elastomer strips, decreased constantly with an increasing amount of amalgamated CA/ SB in the formulations. According to our results, incorporation of FXIIIa inhibitor into catheters and other medical implant devices could offer new perspectives in preventing bio-material associated infections and thrombosis. The use of tissue transglutaminase (T02) inhibitor for treating of liver fibrosis was also investigated. Liver fibrosis is characterized by increased synthesis and decreased degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM). Transglutaminase-mediated covalent cross-linking is involved in the stabilization of ECM in human liver fibrosis. Thus, TG2 inhibitors may be used to counteract the decreased degradation of the ECM. The potential of a liposome based drug delivery system for site specific delivery of the fluorescent TG2 inhibitor into the liver was investigated; results indicated that the TG2 inhibitor can be successfully integrated into liposomes and delivered to the liver, therefore demonstrating that liposomes can be employed for site-specific delivery of TG2 inhibitors into the liver and TG2 inhibitor incorporating liposomes could offer a new approach in treating liver fibrosis and its end stage disease cirrhosis.

The durability of cement bound minestone

The demand for road making materials continues to pressurise the supply of traditional good quality aggregates. Over the years, therefore, consideration has been given to alternative materials including industrial wastes. This thesis is concerned with potential use of Minestone, the by-product of coal mining, for the lower structural layers of pavement construction. Because of their clay like nature, Minestones do not merit consideration for such applications in an unbound state and, therefore, some form of stabilisation is necessary. Previous research has demonstrated that certain cement bound minestones, containing between 5 and 10 per cent cement, satisfy current Department of Transport requirements for use in pavement construction and, furthermore, they are not frost susceptible. However, doubts concerning the durability of cement bound minestones still remain. The thesis includes a review of both the cement and lime stabilisation techniques and also traces the origin and development of the methods used to assess the quality and durability of stabilised materials. An experimental study is described in which cement bound minestone specimens were subjected to a programme of tests which examined compressive strength, resistance to immersion, and resistance to freezing and thawing. The results of the tests were related to the properties of the raw materials. It was discovered that the response to cement stabilisation was governed mainly by the source of the minestone and, to a lesser degree, the cement content. It was also found that resistance in the durability tests was generally improved when the initial moisture content was raised above the optimum value. The result suggest that current methods for assessing cement stabilised materials are not appropriate to cement bound minestones. Alternative methods and criteria, based on volume change and retained strength following immersion and freeze-thaw tests, have been proposed. It is believed that these methods and criteria should also apply to other cement bound materials.

The dynamics and control of a remotely piloted plan-symmetric helicopter

Prior to the development of a production standard control system for ML Aviation's plan-symmetric remotely piloted helicopter system, SPRITE, optimum solutions to technical requirements had yet to be found for some aspects of the work. This thesis describes an industrial project where solutions to real problems have been provided within strict timescale constraints. Use has been made of published material wherever appropriate, new solutions have been contributed where none existed previously. A lack of clearly defined user requirements from potential Remotely Piloted Air Vehicle (RPAV) system users is identified, A simulation package is defined to enable the RPAV designer to progress with air vehicle and control system design, development and evaluation studies and to assist the user to investigate his applications. The theoretical basis of this simulation package is developed including Co-axial Contra-rotating Twin Rotor (CCTR), six degrees of freedom motion, fuselage aerodynamics and sensor and control system models. A compatible system of equations is derived for modelling a miniature plan-symmetric helicopter. Rigorous searches revealed a lack of CCTR models, based on closed form expressions to obviate integration along the rotor blade, for stabilisation and navigation studies through simulation. An economic CCTR simulation model is developed and validated by comparison with published work and practical tests. Confusion in published work between attitude and Euler angles is clarified. The implementation of package is discussed. dynamic adjustment of assessment. the theory into a high integrity software Use is made of a novel technique basing the integration time step size on error Simulation output for control system stability verification, cross coupling of motion between control channels and air vehicle response to demands and horizontal wind gusts studies are presented. Contra-Rotating Twin Rotor Flight Control System Remotely Piloted Plan-Symmetric Helicopter Simulation Six Degrees of Freedom Motion ( i i)

Skin adhesive hydrogels for the topical delivery of active agents

This thesis illustrates the development of tailor-made, partially hydrated skin adhesive hydrogels as a vehicle for the topical delivery of moisturising agents. Maintaining an optimum hydration level of the stratum corneum ensures that the barrier properties of the skin are preserved. An unsaturated ionic monomer 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid sodium salt, glycerol, water, a photoinitiator Irgacure 184 and crosslinker Ebacryl II facilitated the production of monophasic sheet skin adhesives using photopolymerisation. The exploration and modification of the hydrogel components coupled with their influence on the adhesive and dynamic mechanical behaviour led to the development of novel monophasic and biphasic hydrogels. Biphasic pregels comprising of a hydrophobic monomer (epoxidised soybean oil acrylate, lauryl acrylate or stearyl acrylate) micellised with a non ionic surfactant Tween 60 allowed a homogeneous distribution throughout a predominantly hydrophilic phase (2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid sodium salt, 4-acryloylmorpholine, glycerol and water). Further development of biphasic hydrogel technology led to the incorporation of preformed commercial O/W emulsions (Acronal, Flexbond 150, DM137 or Texicryl 13056WB) allowing the hydrophobic component to be added without prior stabilisation. The topical release of moisturising agents 2-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylic acid, lactobionic acid and d-calcium pantothenate results in the deposition onto the skin by an initial burst mechanism. The hydration level of the stratum corneum was measured using a Comeometer CM 825, Skin Reader MY810 or FT-ATR. The use of hydrophilic actives in conjunction with lipophilic agents for example Vitamin E or Jojoba oil provided an occlusive barrier, which reduced the rate of transepidermal water loss. The partition coefficients of the release agents provided invaluable information which enabled the appropriate gel technology to be selected. In summary the synthetic studies led to the understanding and generation of transferable technology. This enabled the synthesis of novel vehicles allowing an array of actives with a range of solubilities to be incorporated.

Mechanism of uptake of the catecholic (7)-α-formamido cephalosporin BRL 41897A by klebsiella pneumoniae

The catecholic cephalosporin BRL 41897 A is resistant to β-lactamases and is taken up by bacteria via the iron transport system. The uptake of this antibiotic in E.coli uses the Fiu and Cir outer membrane proteins, whereas in P. aerugtnosa it enters via the pyochelin transport system. In this thesis mutants of K. pneumoniae resistant to BRL 41897A were isolated using TnphoA mutagenesis and used to study the mechanism of uptake of BRL 41897A by K. pneumoniae. The activity of BRL 41897A towards the parent strain (M10) was increased in iron depleted media, whereas no significant differences in the resistant (KSL) mutants were observed. Three mutants (KSL19, KSL38and KSL59) produced decreased amounts of certain iron-regulated outer membrane proteins. The uptake of 55Fe-BRL 41897A by M10 in iron-deficient medium was higher than in iron-rich medium. This result indicated the involvement of an iron transport system in the uptake of BRL 41897A by K. pneumoniae. Uptake by the KSL mutants in iron-deficient culture was higher than that by M10. This result, supported by analysis of outer membrane and periplasmic proteins of the KSL mutants, indicates that loss of one outer membrane protein can be compensated by over expression of other outer membrane and/or periplasmic proteins. However, the increased uptake of BRL 41897A by the KSL mutants did not reflect increased activity towards these strains, indicating that there are defects in the transport of BRL 41897A resulting in failure to reach the penicillin binding protein target sites in the cytoplasmic membrane. Southern blotting of chromosomal digests and sequencing in one mutant (KSL19) showed that only one copy of TnphoA was inserted into its chromosome. A putative TnphoA inserted gene in KSL19, designated kslA, carrying a signal sequence was identified. Transformation of a fragment containing the kslA gene into KSL19 cells restored the sensitivity to BRL 41897A to that of the parent strain. Data base peptide sequence searches revealed that the kslA gene in the KSL19 has some amino acid homology with the E. coli ExbD protein, which is involved in stabilisation of the TonB protein. 

May the contact lens force be with you

FULL TEXT: Like many people one of my favourite pastimes over the holiday season is to watch the great movies that are offered on the television channels and new releases in the movie theatres or catching up on those DVDs that you have been wanting to watch all year. Recently we had the new ‘Star Wars’ movie, ‘The Force Awakens’, which is reckoned to become the highest grossing movie of all time, and the latest offering from James Bond, ‘Spectre’ (which included, for the car aficionados amongst you, the gorgeous new Aston Martin DB10). It is always amusing to see how vision correction or eye injury is dealt with by movie makers. Spy movies and science fiction movies have a freehand to design aliens with multiples eyes on stalks or retina scanning door locks or goggles that can see through walls. Eye surgery is usually shown in some kind of day case simplified laser treatment that gives instant results, apart from the great scene in the original ‘Terminator’ movie where Arnold Schwarzenegger's android character encounters an injury to one eye and then proceeds to remove the humanoid covering to this mechanical eye over a bathroom sink. I suppose it is much more difficult to try and include contact lenses in such movies. Although you may recall the film ‘Charlie's Angels’, which did have a scene where one of the Angels wore a contact lens that had a retinal image imprinted on it so she could by-pass a retinal scan door lock and an Eddy Murphy spy movie ‘I-Spy’, where he wore contact lenses that had electronic gadgetry that allowed whatever he was looking at to be beamed back to someone else, a kind of remote video camera device. Maybe we aren’t quite there in terms of devices available but these things are probably not the behest of science fiction anymore as the technology does exist to put these things together. The technology to incorporate electronics into contact lenses is being developed and I am sure we will be reporting on it in the near future. In the meantime we can continue to enjoy the unrealistic scenes of eye swapping as in the film ‘Minority Report’ (with Tom Cruise). Much more closely to home, than in a galaxy far far away, in this issue you can find articles on topics much nearer to the closer future. More and more optometrists in the UK are becoming registered for therapeutic work as independent prescribers and the number is likely to rise in the near future. These practitioners will be interested in the review paper by Michael Doughty, who is a member of the CLAE editorial panel (soon to be renamed the Jedi Council!), on prescribing drugs as part of the management of chronic meibomian gland dysfunction. Contact lenses play an active role in myopia control and orthokeratology has been used not only to help provide refractive correction but also in the retardation of myopia. In this issue there are three articles related to this topic. Firstly, an excellent paper looking at the link between higher spherical equivalent refractive errors and the association with slower axial elongation. Secondly, a paper that discusses the effectiveness and safety of overnight orthokeratology with high-permeability lens material. Finally, a paper that looks at the stabilisation of early adult-onset myopia. Whilst we are always eager for new and exciting developments in contact lenses and related instrumentation in this issue of CLAE there is a demonstration of a novel and practical use of a smartphone to assisted anterior segment imaging and suggestions of this may be used in telemedicine. It is not hard to imagine someone taking an image remotely and transmitting that back to a central diagnostic centre with the relevant expertise housed in one place where the information can be interpreted and instruction given back to the remote site. Back to ‘Star Wars’ and you will recall in the film ‘The Phantom Menace’ when Qui-Gon Jinn first meets Anakin Skywalker on Tatooine he takes a sample of his blood and sends a scan of it back to Obi-Wan Kenobi to send for analysis and they find that the boy has the highest midichlorian count ever seen. On behalf of the CLAE Editorial board (or Jedi Council) and the BCLA Council (the Senate of the Republic) we wish for you a great 2016 and ‘may the contact lens force be with you’. Or let me put that another way ‘the CLAE Editorial Board and BCLA Council, on behalf of, a great 2016, we wish for you!’

New business formation in a rapidly growing economy: The Irish experience

The extraordinary growth of the Irish economy since the mid-1990s - the 'Celtic Tiger' - has attracted a great deal of interest, commentary and research. Indeed, many countries look to Ireland as an economic development role model, and it has been suggested that Ireland might provide key lessons for other EU members as they seek to achieve the objectives set out in the Lisbon Agenda. Much of the discussion of Ireland's growth has focused on its possible triggers: the long term consequences of the late 1980s fiscal stabilisation; EU structural funds; education; wage moderation; and devaluation of the Irish punt. The industrial policy perspective has highlighted the importance of inflows of foreign direct investment, but a notable absence from the discourse on the 'Celtic Tiger' has been any mention of the role of new business venture creation and entrepreneurship. In this paper we use unpublished Irish VAT data for the years 1988 to 2004 to provide the first detailed look at national trends in business birth and death rates in Ireland over the 'take-off' period. We also use sub-national VAT data to shed light on spatial trends in new venture creation. Our overall conclusions are that new business formation made no detectable contribution to the acceleration of Ireland's growth in the late 1990s, although we do find evidence of spatial convergence in per capita business stocks.

Inequality, fiscal capacity and the political regime: lessons from the post-communist transition

Using panel data for twenty-seven post-communist economies between 1987-2003, we examine the nexus of relationships between inequality, fiscal capacity (defined as the ability to raise taxes efficiently) and the political regime. Investigating the impact of political reform we find that full political freedom is associated with lower levels of income inequality. Under more oligarchic (authoritarian) regimes, the level of inequality is conditioned by the state’s fiscal capacity. Specifically, oligarchic regimes with more developed fiscal systems are able to defend the prevailing vested interests at a lower cost in terms of social injustice. This empirical finding is consistent with the model developed by Acemoglu (2006). We also find that transition countries undertaking early macroeconomic stabilisation now enjoy lower levels of inequality; we confirm that education fosters equality and the suggestion of Commander et al (1999) that larger countries are prone to higher levels of inequality.

Special issue of PDS - Based on PDDG meeting, Aston University, September 2007, in honour of Professor Norman Billingham

This edition of Polymer Degradation and Stability comprises selected papers presented at the 27th Polymer Degradation Discussion Group (PDDG) Conference, affiliated to the Macromolecular Group of the Royal Society of Chemistry, held at Aston University, Birmingham (UK), September 2007, in honour of Professor Norman Billingham for lifelong career in Polymer Science. Norman Billingham was one of the main founders of the PDDG meetings which have been held annually at different venues in the UK since 1976, and biennially since 1998. The PDDG meetings are forums for scientific developments and open discussion of all aspects of polymer degradation and stabilisation and have always provided younger researchers a platform for presenting and discussing their work in the field. This 27th PDDG meeting, chaired by Sahar Al-Malaika (Aston University), was dedicated to Norman Billingham, the Guest of Honour, in recognition for his distinguished contributions to Polymer Science particularly in the area of polymer degradation and stabilisation. The meeting was attended by 65 delegates from 15 countries in Europe, USA and Australia, many of whom have worked and collaborated with Norman at some points of their career. The guest editors of this issue wish to add their Congratulations to Norman Billingham for his outstanding contributions and achievements in the field of polymer degradation and stabilisation and to wish him very happy years ahead. We wish also to express our gratitude to Elsevier for sponsoring the 27th PDDG event and our appreciation to Professor Norman Billingham in his capacity as the Editor-in-Chief of Polymer Degradation and Stability, for the support and help received during the preparation of this special issue.

Amino acids as cryoprotectants for liposomal delivery systems

Liposomes provide an efficient delivery system for solubilisation and delivery of both small and macro molecules. However, they suffer from the disadvantage of instability when stored as aqueous dispersions. Cryoprotection of the liposomal systems provides an effective approach to overcome poor stability whilst maintaining formulation characteristics, although, the formulation of a freeze-dried product requires the consideration of not only the selection of an appropriate cryoprotectant, but also needs careful consideration of the processing parameters including pre-freezing conditions, primary and secondary drying protocols along with optimisation of cryoprotectant concentration. This current work investigates the application of amino acids as potential cryoprotectants for the stabilisation of liposomes, and results indicate that amino acids show biphasic nature of stabilisation with 4 mol of cryoprotectant per mole of the lipid exhibiting optimum cryoprotection. The investigations of process parameters showed that the pre-freezing temperatures below the glass transition of the amino acids followed by drying for over 6 h resulted in stable formulations. Studies investigating the efficiency of drug retention showed that the cryoprotection offered by lysine was similar to that shown by trehalose, suggesting that amino acids act as effective stabilisers. ESEM analysis was carried out to monitor morphology of the rehydrated liposomes. © 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.