Stable oxygen isotope record of planktonic foraminifera from late Quaternary sediments of the equatorial Pacific

Planktonic foraminiferal test fragmentation in three cores along a depth transect from the western equatorial Pacific (ERDC-93P, 1619 m; RC17-177, 2600 m; V28-238, 3120 m [Thompson, 1976]) were examined for the last 500 kyr at sample intervals from 2.5 to 5 kyr to study the fluctuations of dissolution in the western equatorial Pacific. The age models were constructed by correlating the delta18O records with the SPECMAP stack [Imbrie et al., 1984]. Results showed that intermediate and deep waters experienced the same patterns of dissolution through climatic cycles. Fragmentation varied with a greater amplitude, and the carbonate ion concentration changed less, in the deep than in the intermediate water. Dissolution has significant variance distributions and coherencies with delta18O over the 100, 41, and 23 kyr periods of orbital variations; dissolution maxima lag ice volume minima by 6 to 20 kyr. The dissolution variability was consistent with recent geochemical models which seek to explain the reduction of atmospheric CO2 concentration at the last glacial maximum [Broecker, 1982; Boyle, 1988].

(Table 1) Sea surface temperature reconstruction for eastern equatorial Pacific surface sediment samples

Significant uncertainties persist in the reconstruction of past sea surface temperatures in the eastern equatorial Pacific, especially regarding the amplitude of the glacial cooling and the details of the post-glacial warming. Here we present the first regional calibration of alkenone unsaturation in surface sediments versus mean annual sea surface temperatures (maSST). Based on 81 new and 48 previously published data points, it is shown that open ocean samples conform to established global regressions of Uk'37 versus maSST and that there is no systematic bias from seasonality in the production or export of alkenones, or from surface ocean nutrient concentrations or salinity. The flattening of the regression at the highest maSSTs is found to be statistically insignificant. For the near-coastal Peru upwelling zone between 11-15°S and 76-79°W, however, we corroborate earlier observations that Uk'37 SST estimates significantly over-estimate maSSTs at many sites. We posit that this is caused either by uncertainties in the determination of maSSTs in this highly dynamic environment, or by biasing of the alkenone paleothermometer toward El Niño events as postulated by Rein et al. (2005).

Geochemistry and microfossil content of surface sediments from the Equatorial Atlantic in samples 207 to 310 from the Meteor expedition in 1925

Als Alfred Merz mich aufforderte, die sedimentpetrographische Bearbeitung der "Meteor"-Expedition zu übernehmen, schwebte mir von vornherein als Ziel vor, die Sedimente nicht nur in größerer Zahl als bisher und im Zusammenhang mit den übrigen Wissenschaften vom Meer nach den bisherigen Untersuchungsmethoden zu beschreiben. Es war mir klar, daß neue Ergebnisse nur zu erwarten waren, wenn die Untersuchung der Sedimente und damit ihre Beschreibung auf Grund vertiefter und neuer Methoden unternommen wurde. Ich erhoffte von einer solchen verfeinerten Beschreibung auch ein klareres Bild der Abhängigkeit der Sedimente von ihrer Umwelt. Wir werden diese Abhängigkeit nur verstehen, wenn wir die allgemeinen Gesetzmäßigkeiten herausarbeiten können. Diese werden dann auch eine Anwendung auf andere Sedimente ermöglichen. Für solche Untersuchungen sind Tiefseesedimente günstig, weil wir bei ihnen relativ einfache Bildungsumstände haben, einfacher jedenfalls, als es in der Flachsee im allgemeinen der Fall ist, ungünstig aber, weil diese Umwelteinflüsse weniger bekannt und schwerer zu erforschen sind und die Auswahl der Untersuchungspunkte nicht nach sedimentpetrographischen Gesichtspunkten erfolgen konnte. Die ersten Jahre nach der Rückkehr von der Expedition wurden deshalb auf methodische Untersuchungen verwandt. Insbesondere kam es mir darauf an herauszubekommen, wie die feinsten Bestandteile der Sedimente zusammengesetzt sind. Diese "tonigen" Bestandteile bilden nicht nur den wesentlichen Anteil der Roten Tone und der Blauschlicke, wir finden sie auch, durch Kalk verdünnt, in den Globigerinenschlämmen wieder. Sie sind von der Wissenschaft bisher recht stiefmütterlich behandelt worden. Die Ausarbeitung der Methoden, die gerade auf diesem Gebiet Neuland betreten mußte, ließ sich nicht rasch erzwingen. Es kam hinzu, daß ich mir in Rostock erst meine Arbeitsmöglichkeiten schaffen mußte. Ich habe hier der Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft und der Mecklenburgischen Regierung für ihre Unterstützung mit Apparaten und Personal wärmstens zu danken. Ferner mußte als Vorbedingung für die Deutung der Sedimente zunächst festgestellt werden, zu welchen geologischen Zeiten sie gebildet worden sind und wie groß ihre Bildungsgeschwindigkeit überhaupt ist. Diese Untersuchungen hat W. Schott mit Hilfe der Foraminiferenfaunen als Notgemeinschaftsstipendiat durchgeführt. Diese Vorarbeiten, insbesondere der Ausbau der Methoden, hatten den Nachteil, daß die Veröffentlichung der Ergebnisse nicht so rasch erfolgen konnte, wie ich es selbst gewünscht hätte. Bald nachdem die Darstellung der Methoden und die Foraminiferenuntersuchungen als erste Lieferung erschienen waren, stellte es sich als notwendig heraus, eine beträchtliche Kürzung des restlichen Teiles vorzunehmen. Das hat zur Folge, daß die erste Lieferung breiter dargestellt ist als die Ergebnisse. Als die Nachricht von der Kürzung und dem notwendigen raschen Abschluß des Werkes mir bekannt wurde (Januar 1935), mußte eine Reihe von Untersuchungen eingestellt werden, insbesondere mikroskopische Untersuchungen, die besonders viel Zeit und in der Darstellung viel Raum beanspruchen. Deshalb ist systematisch nur das Guinea-Becken durch V. Leinz und das Kapverden-Becken durch O. E. Radczewski untersucht worden.

Individual foraminifera variability from the western and eastern equatorial Pacific during the Late Holocene and Last Glacial Maximum

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a major source of global interannual variability, but its response to climate change is uncertain. Paleoclimate records from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) provide insight into ENSO behavior when global boundary conditions (ice sheet extent, atmospheric partial pressure of CO2) were different from those today. In this work, we reconstruct LGM temperature variability at equatorial Pacific sites using measurements of individual planktonic foraminifera shells. A deep equatorial thermocline altered the dynamics in the eastern equatorial cold tongue, resulting in reduced ENSO variability during the LGM compared to the Late Holocene. These results suggest that ENSO was not tied directly to the east-west temperature gradient, as previously suggested. Rather, the thermocline of the eastern equatorial Pacific played a decisive role in the ENSO response to LGM climate.

Nutrients of pore water in sediments of the central equatorial Pacific

Shipboard whole-core squeezing was used to measure pore water concentration vs depth profiles of [NO3]-, O2 and SiO2 at 12 stations in the equatorial Pacific along a transect from 15°S to 11°N at 135°W. The [NO3]- and SiO2 profiles were combined with fine-scale resistivity and porosity measurements to calculate benthic fluxes. After using O2 profiles, coupled with the [NO3]- profiles, to constrain the C:N of the degrading organic matter, the [NO3]- fluxes were converted to benthic organic carbon degradation rates. The range in benthic organic carbon degradation rates is 7-30 ?mol cm**-2 y**-1, with maximum values at the equator and minimum values at the southern end of the transect. The zonal trend of benthic degradation rates, with its equatorial maximum and with elevated values skewed to the north of the equator, is similar to the pattern of primary production observed in the region. Benthic organic carbon degradation is 1-2% of primary production. The range of benthic biogenic silica dissolution rates is 6.9-20 µmol cm**-2 y**-1, representing 2.5-5% of silicon fixation in the surface ocean of the region. Its zonal pattern is distinctly different from that of organic carbon degradation: the range in the ratio of silica dissolution to carbon degradation along the transect is 0.44-1.7 mol Si mol C**-1, with maximum values occurring between 12°S and 2°S, and with fairly constant values of 0.5-0.7 north of the equator. A box model calculation of the average lifetime of the organic carbon in the upper 1 cm of the sediments, where 80 +/- 11% of benthic organic carbon degradation occurs, indicates that it is short: from 3.1 years at high flux stations to 11 years at low flux stations. The reactive component of the organic matter must have a shorter lifetime than this average value. In contrast, the average lifetime of biogenic silica in the upper centimeter of these sediments is 55 +/- 28 years, and shows no systematic variations with benthic flux.

Benthic foraminifera in eastern equatorial Indian Ocean surface sediments

Study of Recent abyssal benthic foraminifera from core-top samples in the eastern equatorial Indian Ocean has identified distinctive faunas whose distribution patterns reflect the major hydrographic features of the region. Above 3800 m, Indian Deep Water (IDW) is characterized by a diverse and evenly-distributed biofacies to which Globocassidulina subglobosa, Pyrgo spp., Uvigerina peregrina, and Eggerella bradyi are the major contributors. Nuttalides umbonifera and Epistominella exigua are associated with Indian Bottom Water (IBW) below 3800 m. Within the IBW fauna, N. umbonifera and E. exigua are characteristic of two biofacies with independent distribution patterns. Nuttalides umbonifera systematically increases in abundance with increasing water depth. The E. exigua biofacies reaches its greatest abundance in sediments on the eastern flank of the Ninetyeast Ridge and in the Wharton-Cocos Basin. The hydrographic transition between IDW and IBW coincides with the level of transition from waters supersaturated to waters undersaturated with respect to calcite and with the depth of the lysocline. Carbonate saturation levels, possibly combined with the effects of selective dissolution on the benthic foraminiferal populations, best explain the change in faunas across the IDW/IBW boundary and the bathymetric distribution pattern of N. umbonifera. The distribution of the E. exigua fauna cannot be explained with this model. Epistominella exigua is associated with the colder, more oxygenated IBW of the Wharton-Cocos Basin. The distribution of this biofacies on the eastern flank of the Ninetyeast Ridge agrees well with the calculated bathymetric position of the northward flowing deep boundary current which aerates the eastern basins of the Indian Ocean.

(Table 2) Chemical composition of bottom sediments from the Equatorial East Pacific

Fe, Mn, Cu, Ni, and Co contents in bottom sediment samples from the Clarion Clipperton fracture zone and Guatemala Basin were studied; maps of their distribution in the upper layer of sediments were prepared. At some stations contents of these elements were also measured in Pleistocene and Oligocene sediments. Elevated contents of five ore elements (except for Zn) were found at the East Pacific Rise and in the Clarion-Clipperton province; and of Mn, Ni, and Cu in the Guatemala basin. Increased zinc contents occur only in sediments of the East Pacific Rise and Guatemala Basin. Enrichment of sediments in these elements results from under¬water hydrothermal activity and high biological productivity.

Stable carbon and oxygen isotope ratios of planktonic foraminifera from the equatorial Atlantic

Carbon isotopic records of nutrient-depleted surface water place constraints on the past fertility of the oceans and on past atmospheric pCO2 levels. The best records of nutrient-depleted delta13C are obtained from planktonic foraminifera living in the thick mixed layers of the western equatorial and tropical Atlantic Ocean. We have produced a composite, stacked Globigerinoides sacculifer delta13C record from the equatorial Atlantic, which exhibits significant spectral power at the 100,000- and 41,000-year Milankovitch periods, but no power at the 23,000-year period. Similar to the record presented by Shackleton and Pisias [1985], surface-deep ocean Delta delta13C produced with the G. sacculifer record leads the delta18O ice volume record. However, the glacial-interglacial amplitudes of Delta delta13C differ between our record and Shackleton and Pisias [1985] record. Although large changes in Delta delta13C occur in the equatorial Atlantic during early stages of the last three glacial cycles, surface-deep Delta delta13C at glacial maxima (18O stage 2, late stage 6, and late stage 8) was only about 0.2? greater than during the subsequent interglacial. Our results imply that nutrient-driven pCO2 changes account for about one third of the pCO2 decrease observed in ice cores, and consequently, Delta delta13C should not be used as a proxy pCO2 index. Enough variance in the ice core pCO2 records remains to be explained that conclusions about pCO2 and ice volume phase relationships should also be reexamined. As much as 40 ppm pCO2 change still has not been accounted for by models of past physics and chemistry of the ocean.

Calcium carbonate preservation in the equatorial Pacific

The Pliocene-Pleistocene history of CaCO3 preservation in the central equatorial Pacific is reconstructed from a suite of deep-sea cores and is compared to fluctuations in global ice volume inferred from delta18O records. The results are highlighted by: (1) a strong covariation between CaCO3 preservation and ice volume over 104 to 106 year time scales; (2) a long-term increase in ice volume and CaCO3 preservation since 3.9 Ma demonstrated by a deepening of the lysocline and the carbonate critical depth; (3) a dramatic shift to greater CaCO3 preservation at 2.9 Ma; (4) distinctive ice-volume growth and CaCO3 preservation events at 2.4 Ma, which are associated with the significant intensification of northern hemisphere glaciation; (5) a mid-Pleistocene transition to 100-kyr cyclicity in both CaCO3 preservation and ice volume; and (6) a 600-kyr Brunhes dissolution cycle superimposed on the late Pleistocene glacial/interglacial 100-kyr cycles. CaCO3 preservation primarily reflects the carbonate chemistry of abyssal waters and is controlled by long-term (106 year) and short-term (104 to 105 year) biogeochemical cycling and by distinct paleoclimatic events. We attribute the long-term increase in CaCO3 preservation primarily to a fractionation of CaCO3 deposition from continental shelf to ocean basin, and secondarily to a gradual rise in the riverine and glaciofluvial flux of Ca++. On shorter time scales, the fluctuations in CaCO3 preservation slightly lag ice volume fluctuations and are attributed to climatically induced changes in the circulation and chemistry of Pacific deep water.

Biogenic components, major, trace and rare earth elements of equatorial Pacific Ocean surface sediments (Table 1)

We have analyzed the major, trace, and rare earth element composition of surface sediments collected from a transect across the Equator at 135°W longitude in the Pacific Ocean. Comparing the behavior of this suite of elements to the CaCO3, opal, and Corg fluxes (which record sharp maxima at the Equator, previously documented at the same sampling stations) enables us to assess the relative significance of the various pathways by which trace elements are transported to the equatorial Pacific seafloor. The 1. (1) high biogenic source at the Equator, associated with equatorial divergence of surface water and upwelling of nutrient-rich water, and 2. (2) high aluminosilicate flux at 4°N, associated with increased terrigenous input from elevated rainfall at the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) of the tradewinds, are the two most important fluxes with which elemental transport is affiliated. The biogenic flux at the Equator transports Ca and Sr structurally bound to carbonate tests and Mn primarily as an adsorbed component. Trace elements such as Cr, As, Pb, and the REEs are also influenced by the biogenic flux at the Equator, although this affiliation is not regionally dominant. Normative calculations suggest that extremely large fluxes of Ba and P at the Equator are carried by only small proportions of barite and apatite phases. The high terrigenous flux at the ITCZ has a profound effect on chemical transport to the seafloor, with elemental fluxes increasing tremendously and in parallel with Ti. Normative calculations, however, indicate that these fluxes are far in excess of what can be supplied by lattice-bound terrigenous phases. The accumulation of Ba is greater than is affiliated with biogenic transport at the Equator, while the P flux at the ITCZ is only 10% less than at the Equator. This challenges the common view that Ba and P are essentially exclusively associated with biogenic fluxes. Many other elements (including Mn, Pb, As, and REEs) also record greater accumulation beneath the ITCZ than at the Equator. Thus, adsorptive scavenging by terrigenous paniculate matter, or phases intimately associated with them, appears to be an extremely important process regulating elemental transport to the equatorial Pacific seafloor. These findings emphasize the role of vertical transport to the sediment, and provide additional constraints on the paleochemical use of trace elements to track biogenic and terrigenous fluxes.

Paleomagnetic and beryllium isotope record of West Equatorial Pacific sediments

The reliability of paleomagnetic records as proxies of the geomagnetic field intensity is still a matter of controversy since volcanic materials hardly provide continuous records, and marine sediments are suspected to carry a remanence biased by post-depositional realignments and/or by overprints. Such long standing debate emphasizes the need for the development of methods independent from paleomagnetism to decipher geomagnetic intensity variations. High resolution measurements of authigenic 10Be/9Be along with a detailed sedimentary record of directional and relative paleointensity variations evidence, over the 0.6-1.3 Ma time interval, frequent and recurrent excursions or short events in the late Matuyama and the early Brunhes epochs, among which two Brunhes-Matuyama reversal precursors and an intra-Jaramillo excursion. The results of this study confirm the idea of a highly unstable geomagnetic field as suggested by paleomagnetic evidences.

Barite accumulation rates throughout Pliocene-Pleistocene in Eastern Equatorial Pacific at ODP Site 138-849

Export production is an important component of the carbon cycle, modulating the climate system by transferring CO2 from the atmosphere to the deep ocean via the biological pump. Here we use barite accumulation rates to reconstruct export production in the eastern equatorial Pacific over the past 4.3 Ma. We find that export production fluctuated considerably on multiple time scales. Export production was on average higher (51 g C/m**2/yr) during the Pliocene than the Pleistocene (40 g C/m**2/yr), decreasing between 3 and 1 Ma (from more than 60 to 20 g C/m**2/yr) followed by an increase over the last million years. These trends likely reflect basin-scale changes in nutrient inventory and ocean circulation. Our record reveals decoupling between export production and temperatures on these long (million years) time scale. On orbital time scales, export production was generally higher during cold periods (glacial maxima) between 4.3 and 1.1 Ma. This could be due to stronger wind stress and higher upwelling rates during glacial periods. A shift in the timing of maximum export production to deglaciations is seen in the last ~1.1 million years. Results from this study suggest that, in the eastern equatorial Pacific, mechanisms that affect nutrient supply and/or ecosystem structure and in turn carbon export on orbital time scales differ from those operating on longer time scales and that processes linking export production and climate-modulated oceanic conditions changed about 1.1 million years ago. These observations should be accounted for in climate models to ensure better predictions of future climate change.