Consolidation tests, elastic properties and grain size measurements at the consolidations samples from different Holes of IODP Expedition 302

The Integrated OceanDrilling Program's Expedition 302, the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX), recovered the first Cenozoic sedimentary sequence from the central Arctic Ocean. ACEX provided ground truth for basin scale geophysical interpretations and for guiding future exploration targets in this largely unexplored ocean basin. Here, we present results from a series of consolidation tests used to characterize sediment compressibility and permeability and integrate these with high-resolution measurements of bulk density, porosity and shear strength to investigate the stress history and the nature of prominent lithostratigraphic and seismostratigraphic boundaries in the ACEX record. Despite moderate sedimentation rates (10-30 m/Myr) and high permeability values (10**-15 -10**-18 m**2), consolidation and shear strength measurements both suggest an overall state of underconsolidation or overpressure. One-dimensional compaction modelling shows that to maintain such excess pore pressures, an in situ fluid source is required that exceeds the rate of fluid expulsion generated by mechanical compaction alone. Geochemical and sedimentological evidence is presented that identifes the Opal A-C/T transformation of biosiliceous rich sediments as a potential additional in situ fluid source.However, the combined rat of chemical and mechanical compaction remain too low to fully account for the observed pore pressure gradients, implying an additional diagenetic fluid source from within or below the recovered Cenozoic sediments from ACEX. Recognition of the Opal A-C/T reaction front in the ACEX record has broad reaching regional implications on slope stability and subsurface pressure evolution, and provides an important consideration for interpreting and correlating the spatially limited seismic data from the Arctic Ocean.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and silica during an experiment with a marine diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii, 2004

Opal accumulation rates in sediments have been used as a proxy for carbon flux, but there is poor understanding of the factors that regulate the Si quota of diatoms. Natural variation in silicon isotopes (delta.lc.gif - 54 Bytes30Si) in diatom frustules recovered from sediment cores are an alternative to opal mass for reconstructing diatom Si use and potential C export over geological timescales. Understanding the physiological factors that may influence the Si quota and the delta.lc.gif - 54 Bytes30Si isotopic signal is vital for interpreting biogenic silica as a paleoproxy. We investigated the influence of pCO2 on the Si quota, fluxes across the cell membrane, and frustule dissolution in the marine diatom Thalassiosira weissflogii and determined the effect that pCO2 has on the isotopic fractionation of Si. We found that our Si flux estimates mass balance and, for the first time, describe the Si budget of a diatom. The Si quota rose in cells grown with low pCO2 (100 ppm) compared with controls (370 ppm), and the increased quota was the result of greater retention of Si (i.e., lower losses of Si through efflux and dissolution). The ratio of efflux : influx decreased twofold as pCO2 decreased from 750 to 100 ppm. The efflux of silicon is shown to significantly bias measurements of silica dissolution rates determined by isotope dilution, but no effect on the Si isotopic enrichment factor (epsilon.lc.gif - 51 Bytes) was observed. The latter effect suggests that silicon isotopic discrimination in diatoms is set by the Si transport step rather than by the polymerization step. This observation supports the use of the v signal of biogenic silica as an indicator of the percentage utilization of silicic acid.

(Table 1) Summary of coral geochemical data and reconstructed SST

We analyzed strontium/calcium ratios (Sr/Ca) in four colonies of the Atlantic coral genus Montastrea with growth rates ranging from 2.3 to 12.6 mm/a. Derived Sr/Ca-sea surface temperature (SST) calibrations exhibit significant differences among the four colonies that cannot be explained by variations in SST or seawater Sr/Ca. For a single coral Sr/Ca ratio of 8.8 mmol/mol, the four calibrations predict SSTs ranging from 24.0° to 30.9°C. We find that differences in the Sr/Ca-SST relationships are correlated systematically with the average annual extension rate (ext) of each colony such that Sr/Ca (mmol/mol) = 11.82 (±0.13) - 0.058 (±0.004) * ext (mm/a) - 0.092 (±0.005) * SST (°C). This observation is consistent with previous reports of a link between coral Sr/Ca and growth rate. Verification of our growth-dependent Sr/Ca-SST calibration using a coral excluded from the calibration reconstructs the mean and seasonal amplitude of the actual recorded SST to within 0.3°C. Applying a traditional, nongrowth-dependent Sr/Ca-SST calibration derived from a modern Montastrea to the Sr/Ca ratios of a conspecific coral that grew during the early Little Ice Age (LIA) (400 years B.P.) suggests that Caribbean SSTs were >5°C cooler than today. Conversely, application of our growth-dependent Sr/Ca-SST calibration to Sr/Ca ratios derived from the LIA coral indicates that SSTs during the 5-year period analyzed were within error (±1.4°C) of modern values.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and biological processes of foraminifera, Globigerinoides ruber and Globigerinella siphonifera during experiments, 2011

Specimens of two species of planktic foraminifera, Globigerinoides ruber and Globigerinella siphonifera, were grown under controlled laboratory conditions at a range of temperatures (18-31 °C), salinities (32-44 psu) and pH levels (7.9-8.4). The shells were examined for their calcium isotope compositions (d44/40Ca) and strontium to calcium ratios (Sr/Ca) using Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry. Although the total variation in d44/40Ca (~0.3 per mill) in the studied species is on the same order as the external reproducibility, the data set reveals some apparent trends that are controlled by more than one environmental parameter. There is a well-defined inverse linear relationship between d44/40Ca and Sr/Ca in all experiments, suggesting similar controls on these proxies in foraminiferal calcite independent of species. Analogous to recent results from inorganically precipitated calcite, we suggest that Ca isotope fractionation and Sr partitioning in planktic foraminifera are mainly controlled by precipitation kinetics. This postulation provides us with a unique tool to calculate precipitation rates and draws support from the observation that Sr/Ca ratios are positively correlated with average growth rates. At 25 °C water temperature, precipitation rates in G. siphonifera and G. ruber are calculated to be on the order of 2000 and 3000 µmol/m**2/h, respectively. The lower d44/40Ca observed at 29 °C in both species is consistent with increased precipitation rates at high water temperatures. Salinity response of d44/40Ca (and Sr/Ca) in G. siphonifera implies that this species has the highest precipitation rates at the salinity of its natural habitat, whereas increasing salinities appear to trigger higher precipitation rates in G. ruber. Isotope effects that cannot be explained by precipitation rate in planktic foraminifera can be explained by a biological control, related to a vacuolar pathway for supply of ions during biomineralization and a pH regulation mechanism in these vacuoles. In case of an additional pathway via cross-membrane transport, supplying light Ca for calcification, the d44/40Ca of the reservoir is constrained as -0.2 per mill relative to seawater. Using a Rayleigh distillation model, we calculate that calcification occurs in a semi-open system, where less than half of the Ca supplied by vacuolization is utilized for calcite precipitation. Our findings are relevant for interpreting paleo-proxy data on d44/40Ca and Sr/Ca in foraminifera as well as understanding their biomineralization processes.

Composite depth scales, ash layer correlations and splice tie points of ODP Site 186-1151

We present composite depth scales for the multiply cored intervals from Sites 1150 and 1151. These new depth scales place coeval strata recovered in cores from different holes at a single site into a common stratigraphic framework. At Site 1150, double coring between Holes 1150A and 1150B occurred over only a short interval between ~703 and 713 meters below seafloor (mbsf), but this is sufficient to tie the upper portion of the stratigraphic section cored in Hole 1150A to the lower portion cored in Hole 1150B. The upper ~100 m of the sedimentary section at Site 1151 was double cored with the advanced piston corer and partially cored with the rotary core barrel, resulting in the complete recovery of this interval. The composite depth scales were constructed using Splicer software to vertically adjust the relative depths of various cores from one hole to the depths from another hole so as to align distinct physical properties measured on cores. The magnetic susceptibility data was the physical property most easily correlated between holes, and therefore primarily used to create a composite depth scale and spliced stratigraphic section. The spliced section is a continuous stratigraphic section constructed from representative cored intervals from the holes at a site. Both the splice and the composite depth scale can be applied to other data sets from Site 1151 to provide a stratigraphically continuous and laterally consistent basis for interpreting lithologic features or data sets. The resulting composite scale showed a 30% improvement in correlation of the magnetic susceptibility data relative to the original mbsf depth scale, and comparable improvement when applied to the other data sets.

Calcium isotope ratios from marine barite and carbonate over Paleocene-Eocene Boundary (ODP Sites 1212 and 1221)

Carbonates are invaluable archives of the past, and have been used extensively to reconstruct paleoclimate and paleoceanographic conditions over geologic time scales. Such archives are susceptible to diagenetic alteration via dissolution, recrystallization and secondary precipitation, particularly during ocean acidification events when intense dissolution can occur. Despite the importance of diagenesis on proxy fidelity, the effects of diagenesis on the calcium isotopic composition (d44Ca) of carbonates are unclear. Accordingly, bulk carbonate d44Ca was measured at high resolution in two Pacific deep sea sediment cores (ODP Sites 1212 and 1221) with considerably different dissolution histories over the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM, ~55 Ma). The d44Ca of marine barite was also measured at the deeper Site 1221, which experienced severe carbonate dissolution during the PETM. Large (~0.8 per mil) variations in bulk carbonate d44Ca occur in the deeper site near the peak carbon isotope excursion, and are correlated with a large drop in carbonate weight percent. Such an effect is seen in neither the 1221 barite record nor the bulk carbonate record at the shallower, less dissolved Site 1212. We contend that ocean chemical changes associated with the abrupt and massive carbon release into the ocean-atmosphere system and subsequent ocean acidification at the PETM affected the bulk carbonate d44Ca record via diagenesis in the sedimentary column. Such changes are considerable, and need to be taken into account when interpreting and modeling Ca isotope data over extreme climatic events associated with ocean chemical evolution.

Chemical composition of manganese nodules and crusts from the Pacific and Indian Ocean and Loch Fyne, Scotland

The first part of this thesis includes some topics of a non-geochemical nature but which are of importance in interpreting the geochemistry of nodules. The points covered include their distribution, petrography, structure, mineralogy and internal compositional variations. Part Two includes the geochemistry of both nodules and that of their surrounding sediments, This geochemical study has been divided into firstly, a general geochemical study of both nodules and sediments using a statistical approach to the interpretation of the data, secondly, the regional geochemistry of Pacific and Indian Ocean nodules and sediments, the latter entirely uninvestigated in the past, and thirdly, local variations in the composition of nodules. Throughout, emphasis has been placed on the geochemistry of nodules in terms of their environment of formation.

Ash layers, hyaloclastite, and alteration of basaltic glass at DSDP Leg 65 Holes

Three types of tephra deposits were recovered on Leg 65 of the Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) from three drill sites at the mouth of the Gulf of California: (1) a series of white ash layers at Sites 483, 484, and 485; (2) a layer of plagioclase- phyric sideromelane shards at Site 483; and (3) an indurated, cross-bedded hyaloclastite in Hole 483B. The ash layers in (1) are composed of colorless, fresh rhyolitic glass shards with minor dacitic and rare basaltic shards. These are thought to be derived from explosive volcanoes on the Mexican mainland. Most of the shards in (2) are fresh, but some show marginal to complete alteration to palagonite. The composition of the glass is that of a MORB-type tholeiite, low in Fe and moderately high in Ti, and possibly erupted from off-axis seamounts. Basaltic glass shards occurring in silt about 45 meters above the basement at Site 484 A in the Tamayo Fracture Zone show a distinctly alkalic composition similar to that of the single basement basalt specimen drilled at this site. The hyaloclastite in (3) is made up chiefly of angular sideromelane shards altered to smectite and zeolites (mainly phillipsite) and minor admixtures of terrigenous silt. A very high K and Ba content indicates significant uptake of at least these elements from seawater. Nevertheless, the unusual chemical composition of the underlying massive basalt flow is believed to be reflected in that of the hyaloclastite. This is a powerful argument for interpreting the massive basalt as a surface flow rather than an intrusion. Glass alteration is different in the glassy margins of flows than in thicker glassy pillow rinds. Also, it appears to proceed faster in coarse- than fine-grained sediments.

Core correlation data and revised composite depth scale of Exp302 (ACEX) cores

Expedition 302 of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP), also known as the Arctic Coring Expedition (ACEX), successfully penetrated a sequence of Cenozoic sediments draping the crest of the Lomonosov Ridge in the central Arctic Ocean. The cumulative sedimentary record spans the last 57 m.y. and was recovered from three sites located within 15 km of each other. Merging the recovered cores onto a common depth scale that accurately reflects their stratigraphic placement below the seafloor is a fundamental step toward interpreting this unique sedimentary record. However, the lack of overlapping recovery in adjacent holes and intervals of high core disturbance complicated traditional methods of stratigraphic correlation. Here we present a revised composite depth scale for the ACEX sediments, generated in part by performing a regional stratigraphic correlation with sediments recovered from previous expeditions to the Lomonosov Ridge. The revised depth scale also reassesses the offsets for cores in the upper 55 meters below seafloor, where no overlapping recovery was acquired, and proposes modifications to these depths.

(Table 1) Carbon- and oxygen-isotopes for bulk sediment carbonate at DSDP Holes 86-577 and 86-577A

We have obtained a detailed carbon-isotope stratigraphy of the Paleocene sections recovered from Deep Sea Drilling Project (DSDP) Holes 577 and 577A. This 13C record is useful in stratigraphically correlating the two holes and in interpreting the magnetostratigraphic data. Comparison with the published data for Site 527 (Southeast Atlantic Ocean) shows that 13C stratigraphy is also valuable for long-distance correlation.

Seawater Nd and Pb isotopic record in central Pacific and Caribbean sediments

The shoaling and final closure of the Central American Seaway (CAS) resulted in a major change of the global ocean circulation and has been suggested as an essential driver for strengthening of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). The exact timing of CAS closure is key to interpreting its importance. Here we present a reconstruction of deep and intermediate water Nd and Pb isotope compositions obtained from fossil fish teeth and the authigenic coatings of planktonic foraminifera in the eastern equatorial Pacific (Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) Site 1241) and the Caribbean (ODP Sites 998, 999, and 1000) covering the final stages of CAS closure between 5.6 and 2.2 Ma. The data for the Pacific site indicate no significant Atlantic/Caribbean influence over this entire period. The Caribbean sites show a continuous trend to less radiogenic Nd isotope compositions during the Pliocene, consistent with an enhancement of Upper North Atlantic Deep Water (UNADW) inflow and a strengthening of the AMOC. Superimposed onto this long-term trend, shorter-term changes of intermediate Caribbean Nd isotope signatures approached more UNADW-like values during intervals when published reconstructions of seawater salinity suggested complete closure of the CAS. The data imply that significant deep water exchange with the Pacific essentially stopped by 7 Ma and that shallow exchange, which still occurred at least periodically until approximately 2.5 Ma, may have been linked to the strength of the AMOC but did not have any direct effect on the intermediate and deep Caribbean Nd isotope signatures through mixing with Pacific waters.

Sedimentology and paleontology on core Lz1104 from Lake Hjort, Greenland

Two sediment cores of 70 and 252 cm length were recovered from Hjort Sø, a small lake on Store Koldewey, Northeast Greenland, and studied with a multidisciplinary approach in order to reconstruct the local environmental history and to test the relevance of proxies for paleoenvironmental information. The basal sediments from the longer core are dominated by clastic matter, which was likely deposited during deglaciation of the lake basin. These clastic sediments are overlain by gyttja, which is also present throughout the shorter core. AMS radiocarbon dating was conducted on plant macrofossils of 11 samples from the gyttja in both cores. A reliable chronology was established for both cores, which dated the onset of organic accumulation at 9,500 cal. year BP. The Holocene temperature development, with an early to mid Holocene thermal maximum, is best reflected in the grain-size composition. Nutrient availability was apparently low during the early Holocene and led to low productivity in the lake and its vicinity. From ca. 7,000 cal. year BP, productivity in the lake increased significantly, probably induced by external nutrient input from goose excrements. From this time, micro- and macrofossil remains reflect relatively well the climate history of East Greenland, with a cooling during the middle Holocene, the medieval warming, and the Little Ice Age. The amount of organic matter in the sequence seems to be more affected by lake ice cover or by nutrient supply from the catchment than by temperature changes. The record from Hjort Sø thus reveals the difficulties in interpreting sedimentary records from high arctic regions.

(Table 1) Total organic carbon, calcium carbonate and nitrogen at DSDP Holes 80-559 and 80-550B

Concentrations of organic and inorganic nitrogen have been measured on Leg 80 sediments. The inorganic nitrogen content is relatively constant, 0.02-0.03 wt.%. Because most of the inorganic nitrogen occurs as NH3 or (NH4)+ fixed on clays, clay-poor sediments have lower inorganic nitrogen contents. Organic nitrogen content depends upon both the type and the quantity of organic matter present. In Leg 80 sediments, woody kerogens contain much less organic nitrogen than do kerogens of algal origin. Furthermore, pelagic samples of low organic carbon content have less organic nitrogen than predicted, because of loss during diagenesis. DSDP shipboard analytical procedures do not distinguish between organic and inorganic nitrogen. Great caution must therefore be exercised in interpreting C/N ratios.

Radionuclide analyses, and sedimentation and accumulation rates of sediment core PS2319-1

There is increasing evidence indicating that syndepositional redistribution of sediment on the seafloor by bottom currents is common and can significantly affect sediment mass accumulation rates. Notwithstanding its common incidence, this process (generally referred to as sediment focusing) is often difficult to recognize. If redistribution is near synchronous to deposition, the stratigraphy of the sediment is not disturbed and sediment focusing can easily be overlooked. Ignoring it, however, can lead to serious misinterpretations of sedimentary fluxes, particularly when past changes in export flux from the overlying water are inferred. In many instances, this problem can be resolved, at least for sediments deposited during the late Quaternary, by normalizing to the flux of 230Th scavenged from seawater, which is nearly constant and equivalent to the known rate of production of 230Th from the decay of dissolved 234U. We review the principle, advantages and limitations of this method. Notwithstanding its limitations, it is clear that 230Th normalization does provide a means of achieving more accurate interpretations of sedimentary fluxes and eliminates the risk of serious misinterpretations of sediment mass accumulation rates.