Expanding Learning Time in Schools: Considering the Challenges of Implementation and the Potential Impact

Considering the broader context of school reform that is seeking education strategies that might deliver substantial impact, this article examines four questions related to the policy and practice of expanding learning time: (a) why do educators find the standard American school calendar insufficient to meet students’ educational needs, especially those of disadvantaged students? (b) how do educators implement a longer day and/or year, addressing concerns about both educational quality and costs? (c) what does research report about outcomes of expanding time in schools? and (d) what are the future prospects for increasing the number of expanded-time schools? The paper examines these questions by considering research, policy, and practice at the national level and, throughout, by drawing upon additional evidence from Massachusetts, one of the leading states in the expanded-time movement. In considering the latter two questions, the article explores the knowns and unknowns related to expanded learning time and offers suggestions for further research.

Evaluating the relative status of health and safety programs for minority academic and research institutions

A variety of occupational hazards are indigenous to academic and research institutions, ranging from traditional life safety concerns, such as fire safety and fall protection, to specialized occupational hygiene issues such as exposure to carcinogenic chemicals, radiation sources, and infectious microorganisms. Institutional health and safety programs are constantly challenged to establish and maintain adequate protective measures for this wide array of hazards. A unique subset of academic and research institutions are classified as historically Black universities which provide educational opportunities primarily to minority populations. State funded minority schools receive less resources than their non-minority counterparts, resulting in a reduced ability to provide certain programs and services. Comprehensive health and safety services for these institutions may be one of the services compromised, resulting in uncontrolled exposures to various workplace hazards. Such a result would also be contrary to the national health status objectives to improve preventive health care measures for minority populations.^ To determine if differences exist, a cross-sectional survey was performed to evaluate the relative status of health and safety programs present within minority and non-minority state-funded academic and research institutions. Data were obtained from direct mail questionnaires, supplemented by data from publicly available sources. Parameters for comparison included reported numbers of full and part-time health and safety staff, reported OSHA 200 log (or equivalent) values, and reported workers compensation experience modifiers. The relative impact of institutional minority status, institution size, and OSHA regulatory environment, was also assessed. Additional health and safety program descriptors were solicited in an attempt to develop a preliminary profile of the hazards present in this unique work setting.^ Survey forms were distributed to 24 minority and 51 non-minority institutions. A total of 72% of the questionnaires were returned, with 58% of the minority and 78% of the non-minority institutions participating. The mean number of reported full-time health and safety staff for the responding minority institutions was determined to be 1.14, compared to 3.12 for the responding non-minority institutions. Data distribution variances were stabilized using log-normal transformations, and although subsequent analysis indicated statistically significant differences, the differences were found to be predicted by institution size only, and not by minority status or OSHA regulatory environment. Similar results were noted for estimated full-time equivalent health and safety staffing levels. Significant differences were not noted between reported OSHA 200 log (or equivalent) data, and a lack of information provided on workers compensation experience modifiers prevented comparisons on insurance premium expenditures. Other health and safety program descriptive information obtained served to validate the study's presupposition that the inclusion criteria would encompass those organizations with occupational risks from all four major hazard categories. Worker medical surveillance programs appeared to exist at most institutions, but the specific tests completed were not readily identifiable.^ The results of this study serve as a preliminary description of the health and safety programs for a unique set of workplaces have not been previously investigated. Numerous opportunities for further research are noted, including efforts to quantify the relative amount of each hazard present, the further definition of the programs reported to be in place, determination of other means to measure health outcomes on campuses, and comparisons among other culturally diverse workplaces. ^

Pathways linking socioeconomic position and diabetes: The role of psychosocial factors

Despite increasing interest in the relationship between socioeconomic position (SEP) and health, there remains little understanding of the mechanisms through which SEP is related to chronic disease. This dissertation utilized data from 2,592 U.S. households in the 1995 telephone survey of the Aging, Status, and the Sense of Control study to: (1) investigate potential mediating factors in the association between educational level and prevalence of diabetes and (2) to investigate the association between the three major measures of SEP—income, education, and occupation—and the prevalence of diabetes. Regression analyses were conducted to examine the degree to which sense of personal control and social support mediate the association between level of educational attainment and diabetes and to examine the contribution of each of the SEP measures to diabetes. After adjusting for age, obesity, sex, and race, respondents with less than a high school education had greater odds of having diabetes than those with a college degree or higher level of educational attainment, although the corresponding confidence interval contained the null value (OR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.7, 2.0). Neither sense of control nor social support significantly mediated the association between education and diabetes. However, sense of control was associated with diabetes status (OR = 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5, 1.0). Compared with income and education, employment status was the most strongly associated measure of SEP with diabetes prevalence. After adjusting for age, obesity, sex, and race, respondents who were unable to work due to disability had fourfold greater odds of having diabetes than those who were employed full time (OR = 4.0; 95% CI: 1.9, 8.3). Adding income and/or education to the model did not improve the fit. Understanding the impact of socioeconomic factors on diabetes requires consideration of multiple measures of SEP as well as the psychosocial pathways through which SEP may influence diabetes. ^

Retrospective study of prevalence of Community Associated Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus (CA-MRSA) seen in Texas MedClinics, San Antonio, TX from April 2006-August 2009

Purpose. To evaluate the presence of Community Associated–Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus Aureus, CA-MRSA, in abscesses and skin and soft tissue infections presenting at 9 urgent care clinics in San Antonio, TX. ^ Methods. During the 40-month retrospective study (April 2006 to August 2009), wound cultures collected in 9 urgent care centers were evaluated for MRSA growth, antibiotics prescribed, follow up wound care, and antibiotic prescribing habits by physicians for all patients presenting with abscesses and skin/soft tissue infections. ^ Results. Across 9 urgent care centers in San Antonio, TX, 36,797 abscesses and cases of skin and soft tissue infections were treated during 40 months. Of the 36,797 cases, 9290 patients had wound cultures sent with 5,630 cultures sent to Texas MedClinic’s primary lab. Of the 5630 cultures sent to their primary lab, this reflected a prevalence of 4727 (84 %) cultures were positive for MRSA. Of the 9290 patients who had a wound culture sent (April 10th, 2006 to August 31st, 2009), a total of 4,307 antibiotics were prescribed. The top five antibiotics prescribed for CA-MRSA were Bactrim (55.5%), Clindamycin (18.4%), Bactroban (5%), Amoxicillin (3.5%), and Doxycycline (3%) representing 85.4% of the antibiotics prescribed. 8809/9290 (94.8%) of patients required no more than 3 follow up visits. Of the 33 physicians working full time during the entire study period, 29/33 (87.8%) of the physicians were family medicine physicians and represented varied prescribing rates of antibiotics between 11-76% with 26/33 (78.8%) of physicians prescribing antibiotics greater than 40% of the time.^ Conclusions. Abscesses and soft tissue infections are a common presenting complaint to urgent care centers. This study reveals that antibiotic-prescribing practices can be improved with physician education since this high prevalence was not known previously. Also, treating abscesses with limited packing has been shown to be a viable option in this particular circumstance and would be open field for additional clinical research. Due to the high prevalence of CA-MRSA skin and soft tissue infections among patients presenting to urgent care centers presumptive treatment for MRSA is indicated. Increasing levels of resistance to penicillin antibiotics is concerning and warrants alternative antibiotic management strategies.^

Psychosocial job characteristics as predictors of overall health: Results from a community-based cross-sectional study conducted in southeast Texas in 2001 and 2002

Stress at the workplace exposes people to increased risk for poor physical and/or mental health. Recently psychological and social disadvantages have been proven to place the worker at risk for mental or physical health outcomes. The overall purpose of this study was to study full time employed study subjects and (1) describe the various psychosocial job characteristics in a population of low income individuals stratified by race/ethnicity residing in Houston and Brownsville, Texas and (2) examine the associations between psychosocial job characteristics and physical, mental, and self rated health. It was observed that having a low level of education is associated with having very little or no control, security, and social support at the workplace. Being Mexican American was associated with having good job control, job security, job social support and having a less demanding job. Furthermore, the psychosocial job characteristics were associated with mental health outcomes but not with physical and self rated health. ^

Latino perceptions of and barriers to preventive healthcare maintenance in the southwest United States

Between the 1990 and 2000 Censuses, the Latino population accounted for 40% of the increase in the nation’s total population. The growing population of Latinos underscores the importance for understanding factors that influence whether and how Latinos take care of their health. According to the U.S. Department of Human Health Service’s Office of Minority Health (OMH), Latinos are at greater risk for health disparities (2003). Factors such as lack of health insurance and access to preventive care play a major role in limiting Latino use of primary health care (Institute of Medicine, 2005). Other significant barriers to preventive health care maintenance behaviors have been identified in current literature such as primary care physician interaction, self-perceived health status, and socio-cultural beliefs and traditions (Rojas-Guyler, King, Montieth and 2008; Meir, Medina, and Ory, 2007; Black, 1999). Despite these studies, there remains less information regarding interpersonal perceptions, environmental dynamics and individual and cultural attitudes relevant to utilization of healthcare (Rojas-Guyler, King, Montieth and 2008; Aguirre-Molina, Molina and Zambrana, 2001). Understanding the perceptions of Latinos and the barriers to health care could directly affect healthcare delivery. Improved healthcare utilization among Latinos could reduce the long term health consequences of many preventable and manageable diseases. The purpose of this study was to explore Latino perceptions of U.S. health care and desired changes by Latinos in the U.S. healthcare system. The study had several objectives, including to explore perceived barriers to healthcare utilization and the resulting effects on health among Latinos, to describe culturally influenced attitudes about health care and use of health care services among Latinos, and to make recommendations for reducing disparities by improving healthcare and its utilization. The current study utilized data that were collected as part of a larger study to examine multidimensional, cross-cultural issues relevant to interactions between healthcare consumers and providers. Qualitative methods were used to analyze four Spanish-language focus group transcripts to interpret cultural influences on perceptions and beliefs among Latinos. Direct coding of transcript content was carried out by two reviewers, who conducted independent reviews of each transcript. Team members developed and refined thematic categories, positive and negative cases, and example text segments for each theme and sub-theme. Incongruities of interpretations were resolved through extensive discussion. Study participants included 44 self-identified Latino adults (16 male, 28 female) between age 18 and 64 years. Thirty seven (84.1%) of the participants were immigrants. The study population comprised eight ethnic subgroups. While 31% of the participants reported being employed on a full-time basis, only 18.4% had medical insurance that was private or employee sponsored. Five major themes regarding the perceptions and healthcare utilization behaviors of Latinos were consistent across all focus groups and were identified during the analysis. These were: (1) healthcare utilization, experience, and access; (2) organizational and institutional systems; (3) communication and interpersonal interactions between healthcare provider, staff, and patient; (4) Latinos’ perception of their own health status; (5) cultural influences on healthcare utilization, which included an innovation termed culturally-bound locus of control. Healthcare utilization was directly influenced by healthcare experience, access, current health status, and cultural factors and indirectly influenced by organizational systems. There was a strong interdependence among the main themes. The ability to communicate and interact effectively with healthcare providers and navigate healthcare systems (organizational and institutional access) significantly influenced the participant’s health care experience, most often (indirectly) impacting utilization negatively. ^ Research such as this can help to identify those perceptions and attitudes held by Latinos concerning utilization or underutilization of healthcare systems. These data suggest that for healthcare utilization to improve among Latinos, healthcare systems must create more culturally competent environments by providing better language services at the organizational level and more culturally sensitive providers at the interpersonal level. Better understanding of the complex interactions between these impediments can aid intervention developments, and help health providers and researchers in determining appropriate, adequate, and effective measurers of care to better increase overall health of Latinos.^

The Open Door Mission: Measuring and predicting outcomes of one community-based substance abuse treatment program

The objectives of this study were to identify and measure the average outcomes of the Open Door Mission's nine-month community-based substance abuse treatment program, identify predictors of successful outcomes, and make recommendations to the Open Door Mission for improving its treatment program.^ The Mission's program is exclusive to adult men who have limited financial resources: most of which were homeless or dependent on parents or other family members for basic living needs. Many, but not all, of these men are either chemically dependent or have a history of substance abuse.^ This study tracked a cohort of the Mission's graduates throughout this one-year study and identified various indicators of success at short-term intervals, which may be predictive of longer-term outcomes. We tracked various levels of 12-step program involvement, as well as other social and spiritual activities, such as church affiliation and recovery support.^ Twenty-four of the 66 subjects, or 36% met the Mission's requirements for success. Specific to this success criteria; Fifty-four, or 82% reported affiliation with a home church; Twenty-six, or 39% reported full-time employment; Sixty-one, or 92% did not report or were not identified as having any post-treatment arrests or incarceration, and; Forty, or 61% reported continuous abstinence from both drugs and alcohol.^ Five research-based hypotheses were developed and tested. The primary analysis tool was the web-based non-parametric dependency modeling tool, B-Course, which revealed some strong associations with certain variables, and helped the researchers generate and test several data-driven hypotheses. Full-time employment is the greatest predictor of abstinence: 95% of those who reported full time employment also reported continuous post-treatment abstinence, while 50% of those working part-time were abstinent and 29% of those with no employment were abstinent. Working with a 12-step sponsor, attending aftercare, and service with others were identified as predictors of abstinence.^ This study demonstrates that associations with abstinence and the ODM success criteria are not simply based on one social or behavioral factor. Rather, these relationships are interdependent, and show that abstinence is achieved and maintained through a combination of several 12-step recovery activities. This study used a simple assessment methodology, which demonstrated strong associations across variables and outcomes, which have practical applicability to the Open Door Mission for improving its treatment program. By leveraging the predictive capability of the various success determination methodologies discussed and developed throughout this study, we can identify accurate outcomes with both validity and reliability. This assessment instrument can also be used as an intervention that, if operationalized to the Mission’s clients during the primary treatment program, may measurably improve the effectiveness and outcomes of the Open Door Mission.^

Perceptions of work engagement of nurses in Taiwan

Purpose. The purpose of this study was to determine the perceptions of work engagement of Taiwanese nurses with 3 specific aims: (1) understand Taiwanese nurses' perceptions of work engagement; (2) explore the factors influencing work engagement, and (3) examine how work engagement impacts nursing care for patients. ^ Design. The study used an ethnographic approach with participant observation and semi-structured interviews with RNs. ^ Setting. The study was conducted in the highest and lowest nurse turnover medical surgical units at a regional teaching hospital in southwestern Taiwan. ^ Sample. Purposive sampling resulted in 28 formal interviews with RNs who provided direct patient care, had at least 3 months experience in nursing, and were full-time employees. ^ Methods. Descriptive data were collected through participant observation in each unit. Observations were made while attending meetings, continuing education sessions, and informal conversations with RNs. Field notes and audio recorded semi-structured interviews were analyzed using qualitative thematic analytic techniques. ^ Findings. Findings revealed perceptions of work engagement spanned four domains: patients ("wholehearted care"), work (positive attitude), self (fulfillment and happiness), and others (relationships with colleagues). Providing "wholehearted care" toward patients was the foundation of work engagement for nurses in Taiwan. Engaged nurses felt fulfilled, happy, and found "meaning" through the process of patient care. The study revealed five factors that influenced work engagement: personal, organizational, social, patient, and professional. The impact of work engagement on nurse and patient outcomes are confirmed. ^ Conclusions. Taiwanese nurses connect work engagement with patients, the job, oneself, and colleagues. "Wholehearted patient care" is the core manifestation of work engagement among these nurses. In contrast, studies in western business only focused on work attitudes. Losing interest and "heart" lead to work routines which can lead to individual unhappiness. Findings from this study validate the multiple factors contributing to work engagement of nurses. Job demands and resources can only partially explain what hinders work engagement. Work disengagement and burnout share some commonality but should be measured differently. An understanding of RNs' perceptions of work engagement may provide direction for strategies that improve work engagement leading to decreased RN turnover. ^

Assessing the impact of electronic health record technology adoption on hospital labor efficiency

Information technology (IT) in the hospital organization is fast becoming a key asset, particularly in light of recent reform legislation in the United States calling for expanding the role of IT in our health care system. Future payment reductions to hospitals included in current health reform are based on expected improvements in hospital operating efficiency. Since over half of hospital expenses are for labor, improved efficiency in use of labor resources can be critical in meeting this challenge. Policy makers have touted the value of IT investments to improve efficiency in response to payment reductions. ^ This study was the first to directly examine the relationship between electronic health record (EHR) technology and staffing efficiency in hospitals. As the hospital has a myriad of outputs for inpatient and outpatient care, efficiency was measured using an industry standard performance metric – full time equivalent employees per adjusted occupied bed (FTE/AOB). Three hypotheses were tested in this study.^ To operationalize EHR technology adoption, we developed three constructs to model adoption, each of which was tested by separate hypotheses. The first hypothesis that a larger number of EHR applications used by a hospital would be associated with greater staffing efficiency (or lower values of FTE/AOB) was not accepted. Association between staffing efficiency and specific EHR applications was the second hypothesis tested and accepted with some applications showing significant impacts on observed values for FTE/AOB. Finally, the hypothesis that the longer an EHR application was used in a hospital would be associated with greater labor efficiency was not accepted as the model showed few statistically significant relationships to FTE/AOB performance. Generally, there does not appear a strong relationship between EHR usage and improved labor efficiency in hospitals.^ While returns on investment from EHR usage may not come from labor efficiencies, they may be better sought using measures of quality, contribution to an efficient and effective local health care system, and improved customer satisfaction through greater patient throughput.^

Community health workers: The critical link to sustainable, healthy societies in low-resource settings---A model for the Baylor Shoulder to Shoulder Foundation

Community health workers (CHWs) can serve as a bridge between healthcare providers and communities to positively impact social determinants of health and, thus, the overall health of the population. The potential to effect lasting change is particularly significant within resource-poor settings with limited access to formally trained health care providers such as the small, rural village of Santa Ana Intibucá, Honduras and surrounding areas—located on the geographically and politically isolated border of Honduras and El Salvador. The Baylor Shoulder to Shoulder Foundation (BSTS) works in conjunction with Santa Ana's volunteer health committee to bring a health brigade that has provided health care and public health projects to the area at least twice a year since 2001. They have also hired a full-time Honduran physician, a Honduran in-country administrative director, and built a clinic; yet, no community health worker program exists. This CHW program model is the response to a clear need for a CHW program within the area served by BSTS and presents a CHW program model specific to Santa Ana Intibucá and surrounding areas to be implemented by BSTS. Methods used to develop this model include reviewing the literature for recommendations from leading authorities as well as successfully implemented CHW programs in comparable regions. This information was incorporated into existing knowledge and materials currently being used in the area. Using the CHW model proposed here, each brigade, in conjunction with the communities served, can help develop new modules to respond to the specific health priorities of the region at that time, incorporating consistent modes of contact with the local physician and the CHWs to provide refresher courses, training in new topics of interest, and to be reminded of the importance of community health workers' role as the critical link to healthy societies. With cooperation, effort, and support, the brigade can continue to help integrate a sustainable CHW system in which communities may be able to maximize the care they receive while also learning to care for their own health and the future of their communities.^

A comparison of worker risk of injury while working on fully automated side loaders and other residential collection trucks at a large solid waste collection company

The study aim was to determine whether using automated side loader (ASL) trucks in higher proportions compared to other types of trucks for residential waste collection results in lower injury rates (from all causes). The primary hypothesis was that the risk of injury to workers was lower for those who work with ASL trucks than for workers who work with other types of trucks used in residential waste collection. To test this hypothesis, data were collected from one of the nation’s largest companies in the solid waste management industry. Different local operating units (i.e. facilities) in the company used different types of trucks to varying degrees, which created a special opportunity to examine refuse collection injuries and illnesses and the risk reduction potential of ASL trucks.^ The study design was ecological and analyzed end-of-year data provided by the company for calendar year 2007. During 2007, there were a total of 345 facilities which provided residential services. Each facility represented one observation.^ The dependent variable – injury and illness rate, was defined as a facility’s total case incidence rate (TCIR) recorded in accordance with federal OSHA requirements for the year 2007. The TCIR is the rate of total recordable injury and illness cases per 100 full-time workers. The independent variable, percent of ASL trucks, was calculated by dividing the number of ASL trucks by the total number of residential trucks at each facility.^ Multiple linear regression models were estimated for the impact of the percent of ASL trucks on TCIR per facility. Adjusted analyses included three covariates: median number of hours worked per week for residential workers; median number of months of work experience for residential workers; and median age of residential workers. All analyses were performed with the statistical software, Stata IC (version 11.0).^ The analyses included three approaches to classifying exposure, percent of ASL trucks. The first approach included two levels of exposure: (1) 0% and (2) >0 - <100%. The second approach included three levels of exposure: (1) 0%, (2) ≥ 1 - < 100%, and (3) 100%. The third approach included six levels of exposure to improve detection of a dose-response relationship: (1) 0%, (2) 1 to <25%, (3) 25 to <50%, (4) 50 to <75%, (5) 75 to <100%, and (6) 100%. None of the relationships between injury and illness rate and percent ASL trucks exposure levels was statistically significant (i.e., p<0.05), even after adjustment for all three covariates.^ In summary, the present study shows that there is some risk reduction impact of ASL trucks but not statistically significant. The covariates demonstrated a varied yet more modest impact on the injury and illness rate but again, none of the relationships between injury and illness rate and the covariates were statistically significant (i.e., p<0.05). However, as an ecological study, the present study also has the limitations inherent in such designs and warrants replication in an individual level cohort design. Any stronger conclusions are not suggested.^

Commentary on "Expanded Learning Time in Schools"

As co-founder of KIPP, I know from experience and research that more time in school works. A well-designed extended-time program can help underserved students catch up academically, and prepare them for the rigors of higher education. Implementing extended time more widely poses challenges, but there are also creative solutions to these challenges.

An ecologic comparison study of the impact of economic disadvantage on Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills performance, graduation rates, and readiness for higher education for students attending public and charter schools in Texas from 2004 to 2006

Purpose. No Child Left Behind aimed to "improve the academic achievement of the disadvantaged." The primary research question considered how academic achievement of those from economic disadvantage compared to those not from disadvantage? ^ Economically disadvantaged students can potentially have added academic disadvantage. Research shows low academic achievement can potentially result in drug abuse, youth violence, and teen pregnancy. ^ Methods. To compare the student populations, measures included TAKS results and academic indicator data collected by the Texas Education Agency. ^ Results. T-test analyses showed a significant difference between the economically and non-economically disadvantaged student populations in meeting the TAKS passing standard, graduation, and preparation for higher education.^ Conclusions. The achievement gap between students remained as indicated by the Texas testing program. More research and time are needed to observe if the desired impact on those from economic disadvantage will be reflected by academic achievement data.^

The population health performance of medical students at two medical schools

Public Health and medicine are complimentary disciplines dedicated to the health and well-being of humankind. Worldwide, medical school accreditation bodies require the inclusion of population health in medical education. In 2003, the Institutes of Medicine (IOM) recommended that all medical students receive basic public health training in population-based prevention. The purpose of this study was to (1) examine the public health clinical performance of third-year medical students at two independent medical schools, (2) compare the public health clinical practice performance of the schools, and (3) identify underlying predictors of high and low public health clinical performance at one of the medical schools. ^ This study is unique in its analysis and report of observed medical student public health clinical practices. The cohort consisted of 751 third-year medical students who completed a required clinical performance exam using trained standardized patients. Medical student performance scores on 24 consensus public health items derived from nine patient cases were analyzed.^ The analysis showed nearly identical results for both medical schools at the 60%, 65%, and 70% pass rate. Students performed poorly on items associated with prevention, behavioral science, and surveillance. Factors associated with high student performance included being from an underrepresented minority, matching to a primary care residency, and high class ranking. A review of medical school curriculum at both schools revealed a lack of training in four public health domains. Nationally, 32% of medical students reported inadequate training in public health in the year 2006.^ These findings suggest more dedicated teaching time for public health domains is needed at the medical schools represented in this study. Finally, more research is needed to assess attainment of public health knowledge and skills for medical students nationwide if we are to meet the recommendations of the IOM. ^

Comparison of methods for assessing in home night time crying in healthy infants

Background. Infant colic is a common condition that is thought to put infants at risk for Shaken Baby Syndrome, a particularly devastating form of child abuse. However, little research has been done on techniques parents can use to deal with infant colic. This pilot study was conducted to assess the equipment that will be used in a randomized control trial that will compare the results for two different techniques that parents can use to reduce crying in infants with colic. ^ Methods. A total of 11 healthy infants, between one and five months of age, were recruited into this pilot study. All infants had a dosimeter, actiwatch and maternal log placed into the home and a subset of infants (N=3) were also recorded by a video camera. The equipment recorded between 6pm and 6am for at least two and up to five nights. The maternal log and video log were compared with one another to determine if the maternal log provides an accurate representation of the infant's night-time activities (i.e. sleep, awake, crying, feeding). The maternal log was then compared to the dosimeter and actiwatch data to determine if the dosimeter/actiwatch accurately reproduce the maternal log. ^ Results. Data from 10 infants were included in the analyses. The maternal log and video log were in full or partial agreement 90% of the time. When comparing events noted by the mother, the maternal log and dosimeter data were in agreement 84% of the time, and the maternal log and actiwatch data were in agreement 87% of the time. In combination, the dosimeter and/or actiwatch data agreed with the maternal log 90% of the time. ^ Conclusions. Our preliminary analyses of these data suggest the dosimeter and actiwatch will be useful tool for defining infant sleep patterns relative to the maternal log. However further analysis will be required to develop threshold values that can be used to objectively define events in the proposed RCT. Such analyses will need to integrate data from multiple dosimeters and deal with the shifting baselines observed for both the dosimeter and actiwatch.^