Studien zur Geschichte des deutschen Filmplakats von den Anfängen bis 1945

Plakate begleiten den Film auch in Deutschland schon seit seinen Anfängen 1895/96. Filmplakate sollen Filminhalte in einem grafischen Kürzel zusammenfassen. Aufraggeber ist zumeist der Filmverleih bzw. die Filmgesellschaft, seltener einzelne Kinos. Filmplakate sind im wesentlichen bildlich-figürlich bestimmt, viele illustrieren auf naive Art eine Szene des Films, verbunden mit der Darstellung der Schauspieler. Die Grafiker können sich oft lediglich anhand von Inhaltsangaben und Fotos einen Eindruck von der zu bewerbenden Sache verschaffen. Zunächst werben sie für Programme, weniger für einzelne Filme. Das ändert sich mit der zunehmenden Länge der Produktionen. Neben zahlreichen anonymen Zeichnern werden schon bald auch namhafte Plakatkünstler mit Filmplakaten beschäftigt, wie Klinger, Deutsch, Kainer, Hohlwein, Erdt, die jeweils verschiedene Plakatauffassungen vertreten. Plakate für Asta Nielsen oder Henny Porten dokumentieren frühe Stardarstellungen, diejenigen für frühe Detektivfilme stehen für ein Genre. Mit dem Namen Fenneker steht das expressionistische Filmplakat um 1920 in Verbindung. Grafiker wie Matejko; Leonard, oder Kupfer-Sachs arbeiten eher naturalistisch. Konstruktivistische Plakate entwirf Tschichold. 1927 für den Münchener „Phoebus-Palast“. Zwischen 1930 und 1945 ist der Plakatstil des Ufa-Werbedienstes maßgebend. Abweichend davon kann Pewas Fotomontageplakate gestalten.. Sehr früh beginnt die Zensur sich der Filmplakate anzunehmen. Zunächst in unterschiedlichen Rechtstiteln enthalten, wird die Plakatzensur 1920 im „Reichslichtspielgesetz“ verankert.

Evolutionary tendencies in flowers of Marantaceae with special reference to the style movement mechanism

One of the quickest plant movements ever known is made by the ´explosive´ style in Marantaceae in the service of secondary pollen presentation – herewith showing a striking apomorphy to the sister Cannaceae that might be of high evolutionary consequence. Though known already since the beginning of the 19th century the underlying mechanism of the movement has hitherto not been clarified. The present study reports about the biomechanics of the style-staminode complex and the hydraulic principles of the movement. For the first time it is shown by experiment that in Maranta noctiflora through longitudinal growth of the maturing style in the ´straitjacket´ of the hooded staminode both the hold of the style prior to its release and its tensioning for the movement are brought about. The longer the style grows in relation to the enclosing hooded staminode the more does its capacity for curling up for pollen transfer increase. Hereby I distinguish between the ´basic tension´ that a growing style builds up anyway, even when the hooded staminode is removed beforehand, and the ´induced tension´ which comes about only under the pressure of a ´too short´ hooded staminode and which enables the movement. The results of these investigations are discussed in view of previous interpretations ranging from possible biomechanical to electrophysiological mechanisms. To understand furthermore by which means the style gives way to the strong bending movement without suffering outwardly visible damage I examined its anatomical structure in several genera for its mechanical and hydraulic properties and for the determination of the entire curvature after release. The actual bending part contains tubulate cells whose walls are extraordinarily porous and large longitudinal intercellular spaces. SEM indicates the starting points of cell-wall loosening in primary walls and lysis of middle lamellae - probably through an intense pectinase activity in the maturing style. Fluorescence pictures of macerated and living style-tissue confirm cell-wall perforations that do apparently connect neighbouring cells, which leads to an extremely permeable parenchyma. The ´water-body´ can be shifted from central to dorsal cell layers to support the bending. The geometrical form of the curvature is determined by the vascular bundles. I conclude that the style in Marantaceae contains no ´antagonistic´ motile tissues as in Mimosa or Dionaea. Instead, through self-maceration it develops to a ´hydraulic tissue´ which carries out an irreversible movement through a sudden reshaping. To ascertain the evolutionary consequence of this apomorphic pollination mechanism the diversity and systematic value of hooded staminodes are examined. For this hooded staminodes of 24 genera are sorted according to a minimalistic selection of shape characters and eight morphological types are abstracted from the resulting groups. These types are mapped onto an already available maximally parsimonious tree comprising five major clades. An amazing correspondence is found between the morphological types and the clades; several sister-relationships are confirmed and in cases of uncertain position possible evolutionary pathways, such as convergence, dispersal or re-migration, are discussed, as well as the great evolutionary tendencies for the entire family in which – at least as regards the shape of hooded staminodes – there is obviously a tendency from complicated to strongly simplified forms. It suggests itself that such simplifying derivations may very likely have taken place as adaptations to pollinating animals about which at present too little is known. The value of morphological characters in relation to modern phylogenetic analysis is discussed and conditions for the selection of morphological characters valuable for a systematic grouping are proposed. Altogether, in view of the evolutionary success of Marantaceae compared with Cannaceae the movement mechanism of the style-staminode complex can safely be considered a key innovation within the order Zingiberales.