Knock down von Desmoglein 2 durch induzierbare Cre-spezifische Rekombination in der Maus

Desmosomen sind hoch organisierte adhäsive interzelluläre Verbindungen, die benachbarte Zellen durch Verankerung mit den Intermediärfilamenten des Zytoskeletts miteinander verknüpfen und so Zellen und Geweben Stabilität verleihen. Die Adhäsionsmoleküle der Desmosomen sind die desmosomalen Cadherine. Diese transmembranen Glykoproteine gehen im Interzellulärraum Verbindungen mit den desmosomalen Cadherinen der Nachbarzelle ein und sind im zytoplasmatischen Bereich Anheftungspunkte für weitere an der Desmosomenbildung beteiligte Proteine. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Rolle von Desmoglein 2 (Dsg 2), einem in allen Epithelien exprimierten desmosomalen Cadherin. Da der konstitutive knock out von Dsg 2 embryonal letal ist, wurde im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit eine transgene Maus generiert, in der die Reduktion von Dsg 2 temporär regulierbar war (konditionaler knock down). Dazu wurde der Mechanismus der RNA Interferenz genutzt, wodurch Sequenz-spezifische, post-transkriptionelle Regulation von Genen möglich ist. Unter Verwendung eines über Cre/lox-induzierbaren Vektors wurden transgene Mäuse generiert, welche nach Induktion Dsg 2 shRNA exprimieren, die in der Zelle in siRNA umgewandelt wird und zum Abbau der Dsg 2 mRNA führt. Durch Verpaarung der generierten Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit der über Tamoxifen induzierbaren Cre Deleter knock in Mauslinie Rosa26CreERT2 konnte deutliche Reduktion der Dsg 2 Proteinmenge in Leber, Darm und Herz erreicht werden. In Immunfärbungen der Leber wurde zudem eine reduzierte Desmosomenbildung durch Expression der Dsg 2 shRNA detektiert. Die für diese Versuche generierte und getestete Rosa26CreERT2 Mauslinie ermöglichte jedoch nicht in allen Zellen eines Gewebes die komplette Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase und damit die Expression der shRNA. Dadurch entstanden mosaikartige Wildtyp/knock down-Gewebe, in denen noch ausreichend Desmosomen gebildet wurden, um die Gewebestabilität und -struktur zu erhalten. Für eine funktionale Untersuchung von Dsg 2 in Zusammenhang mit der chronisch entzündlichen Darmerkrankung Colitis ulcerosa wurden die Dsg 2 knock down Mäuse mit Darm-spezifischen, induzierbaren Cre Deleter Mäusen (VillinCreERT2) verpaart. Nach Aktivierung der Cre Rekombinase mittels Tamoxifen wurde in bitransgenen Tieren über Gabe von Azoxymethan (AOM) und Dextransodiumsulfat (DSS) Colitis ulcerosa induziert. Diese entzündliche Erkrankung des Darms ist mit der Induktion von Darmtumoren assoziiert. Bereits nach einmaliger Induktion mit AOM/DSS wurde in der ersten endoskopischen Untersuchung eine starke Entzündung des Darmgewebes und die Ausbildung von flächig wachsenden Tumoren in den Dsg 2 knock down Tieren hervorgerufen. Es ist anzunehmen, dass durch knock down von Dsg 2, und die damit verbundene verminderte Desmosomenbildung und Zelladhäsion, Infiltration von Bakterien durch die epitheliale Barriere des Darms möglich war, und so die Entzündungsreaktion in der Darmmukosa verstärkte. In Zusammenhang mit Verlust der epithelialen Festigkeit durch verringerte Zellkontakte kam es zur Hyperproliferation der Darmmukosa, die sich in Ausbildung von flächigen Tumoren äußerte. In weiteren Experimenten müssen nun die Tumore und das entzündete Gewebe der Colitis-induzierten Mäuse mittels Immunfluoreszenz untersucht werden, um Veränderungen in der Desmosomenformation in situ detektieren zu können. Des Weiteren sind Verpaarungen der Dsg 2 knock down Maus mit anderen Cre Rekombinase exprimierenden Mauslinien möglich, um den Einfluss von Dsg 2 auch in anderen Geweben, beispielsweise im Herzen, zu untersuchen. Die hier vorgelegte Arbeit zeigt also erstmalig den ursächlichen Zusammenhang zwischen Dsg 2 und dem Auftreten von Colitis-assoziierten Tumoren in einem konditionalen RNAi-vermittelten knock down Tiermodell. Die Etablierung dieser Maus ist somit das erste konditionale Mausmodell, welches die bei vielen Krebspatienten gefundenen flachzellig wachsenden Tumore in vivo rekapituliert. Vorausschauend kann man sagen, dass mit Hilfe des im Rahmen dieser Doktorarbeit entwickelten Tiermodells wichtige Erkenntnisses über die Pathologie von Darmtumoren erbracht werden können, die unser Verständnis der Colitis-induzierten Tumorentstehung verbessern.

Electronic transport in the heavy fermion superconductors UPd 2 Al 3 and UNi 2 Al 3

This work addresses the electronical properties of the superconductors UPd2Al3 and UNi2Al3 on the basis of thin film experiments. These isotructural compounds are ideal candiates to study the interplay of magnetism and superconductivity due to the differences of their magnetically ordered states, as well as the experimental evidence for a magnetic pairing mechanism in UPd2Al3. Epitaxial thin film samples of UPd2Al3 and UNi2Al3 were prepared using UHV Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE). For UPd2Al3, the change of the growth direction from the intrinsic (001) to epitaxial (100) was predicted and sucessfully demonstrated using LaAlO3 substrates cut in (110) direction. With optimized deposition process parameters for UPd2Al3 (100) on LaAlO3 (110) superconducting samples with critical temperatures up to Tc = 1.75K were obtained. UPd2Al3-AlOx-Ag mesa junctions with superconducting base electrode were prepared and shown to be in the tunneling regime. However, no signatures of a superconducting density of states were observed in the tunneling spectra. The resistive superconducting transition was probed for a possible dependence on the current direction. In contrast to UNi2Al3, the existence of such feature was excluded in UPd2Al3 (100) thin films. The second focus of this work is the dependence of the resisitive transition in UNi2Al3 (100) thin films on the current direction. The experimental fact that the resisitive transition occurs at slightly higher temperatures for I║a than for I║c can be explained within a model of two weakly coupled superconducting bands. Evidence is presented for the key assumption of the two-band model, namely that transport in and out of the ab-plane is generated on different, weakly coupled parts of the Fermi surface. Main indications are the angle dependence of the superconducting transition and the dependence of the upper critical field Bc2 on current and field orientation. Additionally, several possible alternative explanations for the directional splitting of the transition are excluded in this work. An origin due to scattering on crystal defects or impurities is ruled out, likewise a relation to ohmic heating or vortex dynamics. The shift of the transition temperature as function of the current density was found to behave as predicted by the Ginzburg-Landau theory for critical current depairing, which plays a significant role in the two-band model. In conclusion, the directional splitting of the resisitive transition has to be regarded an intrinsic and unique property of UNi2Al3 up to now. Therefore, UNi2Al3 is proposed as a role model for weakly coupled multiband superconductivity. Magnetoresistance in the normalconducting state was measured for UPd2Al3 and UNi2Al3. For UNi2Al3, a negative contribution was observed close to the antiferromagnetic ordering temperature TN only for I║a, which can be associated to reduced spin-disorder scattering. In agreement with previous results it is concluded that the magnetic moments have to be attributed to the same part of the Fermi surface which generates transport in the ab-plane.

Unconventional superconductivity of the heavy fermion compound UNi 2 Al 3

The heavy fermion compound UNi2Al3 exhibits the coexistence of superconductivity and magnetic order at low temperatures, stimulating speculations about possible exotic Cooper-pairing interaction in this superconductor. However, the preparation of good quality bulk single crystals of UNi2Al3 has proven to be a non-trivial task due to metallurgical problems, which result in the formation of an UAl2 impurity phase and hence a strongly reduced sample purity. The present work concentrates on the preparation, characterization and electronic properties investigation of UNi2Al3 single crystalline thin film samples. The preparation of thin films was accomplished in a molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) system. (100)-oriented epitaxial thin films of UNi2Al3 were grown on single crystalline YAlO3 substrates cut in (010)- or (112)-direction. The high crystallographic quality of the samples was proved by several characterisation methods, such as X-ray analysis, RHEED and TEM. To study the magnetic structure of epitaxial thin films resonant magnetic x-ray scattering was employed. The magnetic order of thin the film samples, the formation of magnetic domains with different moment directions, and the magnetic correlation length were discussed. The electronic properties of the UNi2Al3 thin films in the normal and superconducting states were investigated by means of transport measurements. A pronounced anisotropy of the temperature dependent resistivity ρ(T) was observed. Moreover, it was found that the temperature of the resistive superconducting transition depends on the current direction, providing evidence for multiband superconductivity in UNi2Al3. The initial slope of the upper critical field H′c2(T) of the thin film samples suggests an unconventional spin-singlet superconducting state, as opposed to bulk single crystal data. To probe the superconducting gap of UNi2Al3 directly by means of tunnelling spectroscopy many planar junctions of different design employing different techniques were prepared. Despite the tunneling regime of the junctions, no features of the superconducting density of state of UNi2Al3 were ever observed. It is assumed that the absence of UNi2Al3 gap features in the tunneling spectra was caused by imperfections of the tunnelling contacts. The superconductivity of UNi2Al3 was probably suppressed just in a degraded surface layer, resulting in tunneling into non superconducting UNi2Al3. However, alternative explanations such as intrinsic pair breaking effects at the interface to the barrier are also possible.

Crystal phases and glassy dynamics in monodisperse hard ellipsoids

We have performed Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations of suspensions of monodisperse, hard ellipsoids of revolution. Hard-particle models play a key role in statistical mechanics. They are conceptually and computationally simple, and they offer insight into systems in which particle shape is important, including atomic, molecular, colloidal, and granular systems. In the high density phase diagram of prolate hard ellipsoids we have found a new crystal, which is more stable than the stretched FCC structure proposed previously . The new phase, SM2, has a simple monoclinic unit cell containing a basis of two ellipsoids with unequal orientations. The angle of inclination is very soft for length-to-width (aspect) ratio l/w=3, while the other angles are not. A symmetric state of the unit cell exists, related to the densest-known packings of ellipsoids; it is not always the stable one. Our results remove the stretched FCC structure for aspect ratio l/w=3 from the phase diagram of hard, uni-axial ellipsoids. We provide evidence that this holds between aspect ratios 3 and 6, and possibly beyond. Finally, ellipsoids in SM2 at l/w=1.55 exhibit end-over-end flipping, warranting studies of the cross-over to where this dynamics is not possible. Secondly, we studied the dynamics of nearly spherical ellipsoids. In equilibrium, they show a first-order transition from an isotropic phase to a rotator phase, where positions are crystalline but orientations are free. When over-compressing the isotropic phase into the rotator regime, we observed super-Arrhenius slowing down of diffusion and relaxation, and signatures of the cage effect. These features of glassy dynamics are sufficiently strong that asymptotic scaling laws of the Mode-Coupling Theory of the glass transition (MCT) could be tested, and were found to apply. We found strong coupling of positional and orientational degrees of freedom, leading to a common value for the MCT glass-transition volume fraction. Flipping modes were not slowed down significantly. We demonstrated that the results are independent of simulation method, as predicted by MCT. Further, we determined that even intra-cage motion is cooperative. We confirmed the presence of dynamical heterogeneities associated with the cage effect. The transit between cages was seen to occur on short time scales, compared to the time spent in cages; but the transit was shown not to involve displacements distinguishable in character from intra-cage motion. The presence of glassy dynamics was predicted by molecular MCT (MMCT). However, as MMCT disregards crystallization, a test by simulation was required. Glassy dynamics is unusual in monodisperse systems. Crystallization typically intervenes unless polydispersity, network-forming bonds or other asymmetries are introduced. We argue that particle anisometry acts as a sufficient source of disorder to prevent crystallization. This sheds new light on the question of which ingredients are required for glass formation.