Electronic energy transfer processes in pi-conjugated polymers

Currently pi-conjugated polymers are considered as technologically interesting materials to be used as functional building elements for the development of the new generation of optoelectronic devices. More specifically during the last few years, poly-p-phenylene materials have attracted considerable attention for their blue photoluminescence properties. This Thesis deals with the optical properties of the most representative blue light poly-p-phenylene emitters such as poly(fluorene), oligo(fluorene), poly(indenofluorene) and ladder-type penta(phenylene) derivatives. In the present work, laser induced photoluminescence spectroscopy is used as a major tool for the study of the interdependence between the dynamics of the probed photoluminescence, the molecular structures of the prepared polymeric films and the presence of chemical defects. Complementary results obtained by two-dimensional wide-angle X-ray diffraction are reported. These findings show that the different optical properties observed are influenced by the intermolecular solid-state interactions that in turn are controlled by the pendant groups of the polymer backbone. A significant feedback is delivered regarding the positive impact of a new synthetic route for the preparation of a poly(indenofluorene) derivative on the spectral purity of the compound. The energy transfer mechanisms that operate in the studied systems are addressed by doping experiments. After the evaluation of the structure/property interdependence, a new optical excitation pathway is presented. An efficient photon low-energy up-conversion that sensitises the blue emission of poly(fluorene) is demonstrated. The observed phenomenon takes place in poly(fluorene) derivatives hosts doped with metallated octaethyl porphyrins, after quasi-CW photoexcitation of intensities in the order of kW/cm2. The up-conversion process is parameterised in terms of temperature, wavelength excitation and central metal cation in the porphyrin ring. Additionally the observation of the up-conversion is extended in a broad range of poly-p-phenylene blue light emitting hosts. The dependence of the detected up-conversion intensity on the excitation intensity and doping concentration is reported. Furthermore the dynamics of the up-conversion intensity are monitored as a function of the doping concentration. These experimental results strongly suggest the existence of triplet-triplet annihilation events into the porphyrin molecules that are subsequently followed by energy transfer to the host. After confirming the occurrence of the up-conversion in solutions, cyclic voltammetry is used in order to show that the up-conversion efficiency is partially determined from the energetic alignment between the HOMO levels of the host and the dopant.

Quantum dot-dye hybrid systems for energy transfer applications

In this thesis, we focus on the preparation of energy transfer-based quantum dot (QD)-dye hybrid systems. Two kinds of QD-dye hybrid systems have been successfully synthesized: QD-silica-dye and QD-dye hybrid systems.rn rnIn the QD-silica-dye hybrid system, multishell CdSe/CdS/ZnS QDs were adsorbed onto monodisperse Stöber silica particles with an outer silica shell of thickness 2 - 24 nm containing organic dye molecules (Texas Red). The thickness of this dye layer has a strong effect on the total sensitized acceptor emission, which is explained by the increase in the number of dye molecules homogeneously distributed within the silica shell, in combination with an enhanced surface adsorption of QDs with increasing dye amount. Our conclusions were underlined by comparison of the experimental results with Monte-Carlo simulations, and by control experiments confirming attractive interactions between QDs and Texas Red freely dissolved in solution. rnrnNew QD-dye hybrid system consisting of multishell QDs and organic perylene dyes have been synthesized. We developed a versatile approach to assemble extraordinarily stable QD-dye hybrids, which uses dicarboxylate anchors to bind rylene dyes to QD. This system yields a good basis to study the energy transfer between QD and dye because of its simple and compact design: there is no third kind of molecule linking QD and dye; no spacer; and the affinity of the functional group to the QD surface is strong. The FRET signal was measured for these complexes as a function of both dye to QD ratio and center-to-center distance between QD and dye by controlling number of covered ZnS layers. Data showed that fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) was the dominant mechanism of the energy transfer in our QD-dye hybrid system. FRET efficiency can be controlled by not only adjusting the number of dyes on the QD surface or the QD to dye distance, but also properly choosing different dye and QD components. Due to the strong stability, our QD-dye complexes can also be easily transferred into water. Our approach can apply to not only dye molecules but also other organic molecules. As an example, the QDs have been complexed with calixarene molecules and the QD-calixarene complexes also have potential for QD-based energy transfer study. rn

Electronic energy transfer processes and charge carrier transport in pi-conjugated polymers

Conjugated polymers have attracted tremendous academical and industrial research interest over the past decades due to the appealing advantages that organic / polymeric materials offer for electronic applications and devices such as organic light emitting diodes (OLED), organic field effect transistors (OFET), organic solar cells (OSC), photodiodes and plastic lasers. The optimization of organic materials for applications in optoelectronic devices requires detailed knowledge of their photophysical properties, for instance energy levels of excited singlet and triplet states, excited state decay mechanisms and charge carrier mobilities. In the present work a variety of different conjugated (co)polymers, mainly polyspirobifluorene- and polyfluorene-type materials, was investigated using time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy in the picosecond to second time domain to study their elementary photophysical properties and to get a deeper insight into structure-property relationships. The experiments cover fluorescence spectroscopy using Streak Camera techniques as well as time-delayed gated detection techniques for the investigation of delayed fluorescence and phosphorescence. All measurements were performed on the solid state, i.e. thin polymer films and on diluted solutions. Starting from the elementary photophysical properties of conjugated polymers the experiments were extended to studies of singlet and triplet energy transfer processes in polymer blends, polymer-triplet emitter blends and copolymers. The phenomenon of photonenergy upconversion was investigated in blue light-emitting polymer matrices doped with metallated porphyrin derivatives supposing an bimolecular annihilation upconversion mechanism which could be experimentally verified on a series of copolymers. This mechanism allows for more efficient photonenergy upconversion than previously reported for polyfluorene derivatives. In addition to the above described spectroscopical experiments, amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) in thin film polymer waveguides was studied employing a fully-arylated poly(indenofluorene) as the gain medium. It was found that the material exhibits a very low threshold value for amplification of blue light combined with an excellent oxidative stability, which makes it interesting as active material for organic solid state lasers. Apart from spectroscopical experiments, transient photocurrent measurements on conjugated polymers were performed as well to elucidate the charge carrier mobility in the solid state, which is an important material parameter for device applications. A modified time-of-flight (TOF) technique using a charge carrier generation layer allowed to study hole transport in a series of spirobifluorene copolymers to unravel the structure-mobility relationship by comparison with the homopolymer. Not only the charge carrier mobility could be determined for the series of polymers but also field- and temperature-dependent measurements analyzed in the framework of the Gaussian disorder model showed that results coincide very well with the predictions of the model. Thus, the validity of the disorder concept for charge carrier transport in amorphous glassy materials could be verified for the investigated series of copolymers.

Biomimetisches Modell eines Photosystems aus dem pflanzlichen Photosyntheseapparat

In dieser Arbeit wurde ein biomimetisches Modell für ein pflanzliches Photosystem bestehend aus dem rekombinanten Hauptlichtsammlerkomplex (LHCII) als Absorptions- und Energietransfereinheit und einem N-terminal an das Protein gebundenen Farbstoff als Energieakzeptor hergestellt. Mehrere LHCII-Farbstoff-Konstrukte wurden getestet, die höchste Energietransfereffizienz von komplexgebundenem Chlorophyll-a zum Energieakzeptor konnte an einem LHCII-Benzoylterrylendicarboximid-Konstrukt gemessen werden. Bei Raumtemperatur wurde hier 70% der Chlorophyll-a-Anregungsenergie auf den Farbstoff übertragen, bei 77 K sogar 85%. LHCII-Farbstoffkonstrukte können helfen, strukturelle und funktionelle Eigenschaften des LHCII näher zu beleuchten. So konnte bereits in dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, daß der N-Terminus des Komplexes im zeitlichen Mittel in eine größere Annäherung zum pigmentierten Teil des LHCII kommen muß, sonst sind Energietransfereffizienzen obiger Größenordnung nicht möglich. Weitere Erkenntnisse werden von einzelmolekülspektroskopischen Untersuchungen erwartet. Voraussetzung hierfür ist jedoch eine orientierte Immobilisierung des LHCII auf einer Glasoberfläche. Es gelang, den Komplex über eine auf molekularer Ebene eingeführte Aminosäuresequenz aus sechs Histidinen an die Nickelchelatgruppe einer auf Glas immobilisierten Meerrettich-Peroxidase zu binden. Einzelmolekülspektroskopisch konnte eine LHCII-Immobilisation senkrecht zur Proteinsymmetrieachse nachgewiesen werden. Mittelfristig wird angestrebt, LHCII-Farbstoffkonstrukte auch für photovoltaische Anwendungen nutzbar zu machen. Ein erster Meilenstein wurde in dieser Arbeit erreicht, indem es gelang, LHCII an Titandioxid, Halbleiter der sog. Grätzelzelle, zu binden.

Liquid crystalline oligofluorenes and their derivatives

Homo-oligofluorenes (OFn), polyfluorenes (PF2/6) and oligofluorenes with one fluorenenone group in the center (OFnK) were synthesized. They were used as model compounds to understand of the structure-property relationships of polyfluorenes and the origin of the green emission in the photoluminescence (after photooxidation of the PFs) and the electroluminescence (EL) spectra. The electronic, electrochemical properties, thermal behavior, supramolecular self-assembly, and photophysical properties of OFn, PF2/6 and OFnK were investigated. Oligofluorenes with 2-ethylhexyl side chain (OF2-OF7) from the dimer up to the heptamer were prepared by a series of stepwise transition metal mediated Suzuki and Yamamoto coupling reactions. Polyfluorene was synthesized by Yamamoto coupling of 2,7-dibromo-9,9-bis(2-ethylhexyl)fluorene. Oligofluorenes with one fluorenone group in the center (OF3K, OF5K, OF7K) were prepared by Suzuki coupling between the monoboronic fluorenyl monomer, dimer, trimer and 2, 7-dibromofluorenone. The electrochemical and electronic properties of homo-oligofluorenes (OFn) were systematically studied by several combined techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, steady and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. It was found that the oligofluorenes behave like classical conjugated oligomers, i.e., with the increase of the chain-length, the corresponding oxidation potential, the absorption and emission maximum, ionization potential, electron affinity, band gap and the photoluminescence lifetime displayed a very good linear relation with the reciprocal number of the fluorene units (1/n). The extrapolation of these linear relations to infinite chain length predicted the electrochemical and electronic properties of the corresponding polyfluorenes. The thermal behavior, single-crystal structure and supramolecular packing, alignment properties, and molecular dynamics of the homo-oligofluorenes (OFn) up to the polymer were studied using techniques such as TGA, DSC, WAXS, POM and DS. The OFn from tetramer to heptamer show a smectic liquid crystalline phase with clearly defined isotropization temperature. The oligomers do show a glass transition which exhibits n-1 dependence and allows extrapolation to a hypothetical glass transition of the polymer at around 64 °C. A smectic packing and helix-like conformation for the oligofluorenes from tetramer to heptamer was supported by WAXS experiments, simulation, and single-crystal structure of some oligofluorene derivatives. Oligofluorenes were aligned more easily than the corresponding polymer, and the alignability increased with the molecular length from tetramer to heptamer. The molecular dynamics in a series of oligofluorenes up to the polymer was studied using dielectric spectroscopy. The photophysical properties of OFn and PF2/6 were investigated by the steady-state spectra (UV-vis absorption and fluorescence spectra) and time-resolved fluorescence spectra both in solution and thin film. The time-resolved fluorescence spectra of the oligofluorenes were measured by streak camera and gate detection technique. The lifetime of the oligofluorenes decreased with the extension of the chain-length. No green emission was observed in CW, prompt and delayed fluorescence for oligofluorenes in m-THF and film at RT and 77K. Phosphorescence was observed for oligofluorenes in frozen dilute m-THF solution at 77K and its lifetime increased with length of oligofluorenes. A linear relation was obtained for triplet energy and singlet energy as a function of the reciprocal degree of polymerization, and the singlet-triplet energy gap (S1-T1) was found to decrease with the increase of degree of polymerization. Oligofluorenes with one fluorenone unit at the center were used as model compounds to understand the origin of the low-energy (“green”) emission band in the photoluminescence and electroluminescence spectra of polyfluorenes. Their electrochemical properties were investigated by CV, and the ionization potential (Ip) and electron affinity (Ea) were calculated from the onset of oxidation and reduction of OFnK. The photophysical properties of OFnK were studied in dilute solution and thin film by steady-state spectra and time-resolved fluorescence spectra. A strong green emission accompanied with a weak blue emission were obtained in solution and only green emission was observed on film. The strong green emission of OFnK suggested that rapid energy transfer takes place from higher energy sites (fluorene segments) to lower energy sites (fluorenone unit) prior to the radiative decay of the excited species. The fluorescence spectra of OFnK also showed solvatochromism. Monoexponential decay behaviour was observed by time-resolved fluorescence measurements. In addition, the site-selective excitation and concentration dependence of the fluorescence spectra were investigated. The ratio of green and blue emission band intensities increases with the increase of the concentration. The observed strong concentration dependence of the green emission band in solution suggests that increased interchain interactions among the fluorenone-containing oligofluorene chain enhanced the emission from the fluorenone defects at higher concentration. On the other hand, the mono-exponential decay behaviour and power dependence were not influenced significantly by the concentration. We have ruled out the possibility that the green emission band originates from aggregates or excimer formation. Energy transfer was further investigated using a model system of a polyfluorene doped by OFnK. Förster-type energy transfer took place from PF2/6 to OFnK, and the energy transfer efficiency increased with increasing of the concentration of OFnK. Efficient funneling of excitation energy from the high-energy fluorene segments to the low-energy fluorenone defects results from energy migration by hopping of excitations along a single polymer chain until they are trapped on the fluorenone defects on that chain or transferred onto neighbouring chains by Förster-type interchain energy transfer process. These results imply that the red-shifted emission in polyfluorenes can originate from (usually undesirable) keto groups at the bridging carbon atoms-especially if the samples have been subject to photo- or electro-oxidation or if fluorenone units are present due to an improper purification of the monomers prior to polymerization.

Systematic studies of protein immobilization by surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy

The research interest of this study is to investigate surface immobilization strategies for proteins and other biomolecules by the surface plasmon field-enhanced fluorescence spectroscopy (SPFS) technique. The recrystallization features of the S-layer proteins and the possibility of combining the S-layer lattice arrays with other functional molecules make this protein a prime candidate for supramolecular architectures. The recrystallization behavior on gold or on the secondary cell wall polymer (SCWP) was recorded by SPR. The optical thicknesses and surface densities for different protein layers were calculated. In DNA hybridization tests performed in order to discriminate different mismatches, recombinant S-layer-streptavidin fusion protein matrices showed their potential for new microarrays. Moreover, SCWPs coated gold chips, covered with a controlled and oriented assembly of S-layer fusion proteins, represent an even more sensitive fluorescence testing platform. Additionally, S-layer fusion proteins as the matrix for LHCII immobilization strongly demonstrate superiority over routine approaches, proving the possibility of utilizing them as a new strategy for biomolecular coupling. In the study of the SPFS hCG immunoassay, the biophysical and immunological characteristics of this glycoprotein hormone were presented first. After the investigation of the effect of the biotin thiol dilution on the coupling efficiently, the interfacial binding model including the appropriate binary SAM structure and the versatile streptavidin-biotin interaction was chosen as the basic supramolecular architecture for the fabrication of a SPFS-based immunoassay. Next, the affinity characteristics between different antibodies and hCG were measured via an equilibrium binding analysis, which is the first example for the titration of such a high affinity interaction by SPFS. The results agree very well with the constants derived from the literature. Finally, a sandwich assay and a competitive assay were selected as templates for SPFS-based hCG detection, and an excellent LOD of 0.15 mIU/ml was attained via the “one step” sandwich method. Such high sensitivity not only fulfills clinical requirements, but is also better than most other biosensors. Fully understanding how LHCII complexes transfer the sunlight energy directionally and efficiently to the reaction center is potentially useful for constructing biomimetic devices as solar cells. After the introduction of the structural and the spectroscopic features of LHCII, different surface immobilization strategies of LHCII were summarized next. Among them the strategy based on the His-tag and the immobilized metal (ion) affinity chromatography (IMAC) technique were of great interest and resulted in different kinds of home-fabricated His-tag chelating chips. Their substantial protein coupling capacity, maintenance of high biological activity and a remarkably repeatable binding ability on the same chip after regeneration was demonstrated. Moreover, different parameters related to the stability of surface coupled reconstituted complexes, including sucrose, detergent, lipid, oligomerization, temperature and circulation rate, were evaluated in order to standardize the most effective immobilization conditions. In addition, partial lipid bilayers obtained from LHCII contained proteo-liposomes fusion on the surface were observed by the QCM technique. Finally, the inter-complex energy transfer between neighboring LHCIIs on a gold protected silver surface by excitation with a blue laser (λ = 473nm) was recorded for the first time, and the factors influencing the energy transfer efficiency were evaluated.

Novel porphyrin amino acids as building blocks for artificial photosynthetic reaction centers : photoinduced energy and electron transfer

This thesis reports on the synthesis and characterisation of trans-(M)AB2C meso-substituted porphyrin amino acid esters (PAr) (M = 2H or Zn) with tunable electron donating and electron withdrawing Ar substituents at B positions (Ar = 4-C6H4OnBu, 4-C6H4OMe, 2,4,6-C6H2Me3, 4-C6H4Me, C6H5, 4-C6H4F, 4-C6H4CF3, C6F5). These porphyrins were used as key building blocks for photosynthetic LHC (LHC = light-harvesting antenna complex) and RC (RC = reaction center) model compounds.rnBased on free-base or zinc(II) porphyrin amino acid esters and porphyrin acids several amide linked free-base bis(porphyrins) PAr1-PAr2 (Ar1 = 2,4,6-C6H2Me3, C6F5 and Ar2 = 2,4,6-C6H2Me3, 4-C6H4F, 4-C6H4CF3, C6F5), mono metallated bis(porphyrin) PAr1-(Zn)PAr2 (Ar1 = 2,4,6-C6H2Me3 and Ar2 =4-C6H4F) and its doubly zincated complexes (Zn)PAr1-(Zn)PAr2 were prepared. In the fluorescence spectra of free-base bis(porphyrins) the porphyrin with the strongest electron donating power of Ar substituents at B positions is the light emitting unity. The emission of mono metallated bis(porphyrin) occurs only from the free-base porphyrin building block. This phenomenon is caused by an efficient energy transfer likely via the Dexter through-bond mechanism.rnLinking of anthraquinone (Q) as electron acceptor (A) to the N-terminus of porphyrin amino acid esters ((M)PAr) and aminoferrocene (Fc) as electron donor (D) to the C-terminus of the porphyrin resulting in Q-(M)PAr-Fc triads (M = 2H or Zn, Ar = 4-C6H4OnBu, 4-C6H4OMe, 2,4,6-C6H2Me3, 4-C6H4Me, C6H5, 4-C6H4F, 4-C6H4CF3, C6F5) with tunable electron density at the porphyrin chromophore. In these triads initial oxidative PET (Q←(M)PAr) and reductive PET ((M)PAr→Fc) (PET = photoinduced electron transfer) are possible. Both processes leads to an emission quenching of (M)PAr. The efficiency of the PET pathways occurring in the Marcus normal region is controlled by the specific porphyrin electron density.rnAmide-linked conjugates PAr-Fc (Ar = 2,4,6-C6H2Me3, C6F5) and Fmoc-Fc-PAr1 (N-Fmoc-Fc = N-Fmoc protected 1,1’-ferrocene amino acid; Ar1 = C6H5, 4-C6H4F, 4-C6H4CF3, C6F5) as well as hinges PAr2-Fc-PAr1 (Ar1 = C6H5, 4-C6H4F and Ar2 = 2,4,6-C6H2Me3) were studied with respect to the reductive PET. The PET driving force (−GET) in dyads increases with the increasing electron withdrawing character of Ar substituents. Additionally, intramolecular energy transfer between porphyrins PAr1 and PAr2 is feasible in the hinges via the Förster mechanism.rn

Synthesis and surface modification of semiconductor nanocrystals

The last decade has witnessed an exponential growth of activities in the field of nanoscience and nanotechnology worldwide, driven both by the excitement of understanding new science and by the potential hope for applications and economic impacts. The largest activity in this field up to date has been in the synthesis and characterization of new materials consisting of particles with dimensions in the order of a few nanometers, so-called nanocrystalline materials. [1-8] Semiconductor nanomaterials such as III/V or II/VI compound semiconductors exhibit strong quantum confinement behavior in the size range from 1 to 10 nm. Therefore, preparation of high quality semiconductor nanocrystals has been a challenge for synthetic chemists, leading to the recent rapid progress in delivering a wide variety of semiconducting nanomaterials. Semiconductor nanocrystals, also called quantum dots, possess physical properties distinctly different from those of the bulk material. Typically, in the size range from 1 to 10 nm, when the particle size is changed, the band gap between the valence and the conduction band will change, too. In a simple approximation a particle in a box model has been used to describe the phenomenon[9]: at nanoscale dimensions the degenerate energy states of a semiconductor separate into discrete states and the system behaves like one big molecule. The size-dependent transformation of the energy levels of the particles is called “quantum size-effect”. Quantum confinement of both the electron and hole in all three dimensions leads to an increase in the effective bandgap of the material with decreasing crystallite size. Consequently, both the optical absorption and emission of semiconductor nanaocrystals shift to the blue (higher energies) as the size of the particles gets smaller. This color tuning is well documented for CdSe nanocrystals whose absorption and emission covers almost the whole visible spectral range. As particle sizes become smaller the ratio of surface atoms to those in the interior increases, which has a strong impact on particle properties, too. Prominent examples are the low melting point [8] and size/shape dependent pressure resistance [10] of semiconductor nanocrystals. Given the size dependence of particle properties, chemists and material scientists now have the unique opportunity to change the electronic and chemical properties of a material by simply controlling the particle size. In particular, CdSe nanocrystals have been widely investigated. Mainly due to their size-dependent optoelectronic properties [11, 12] and flexible chemical processibility [13], they have played a distinguished role for a number of seminal studies [11, 12, 14, 15]. Potential technical applications have been discussed, too. [8, 16-27] Improvement of the optoelectronic properties of semiconductor nanocrystals is still a prominent research topic. One of the most important approaches is fabricating composite type-I core-shell structures which exhibit improved properties, making them attractive from both a fundamental and a practical point of view. Overcoating of nanocrystallites with higher band gap inorganic materials has been shown to increase the photoluminescence quantum yields by eliminating surface nonradiative recombination sites. [28] Particles passivated with inorganic shells are more robust than nanocrystals covered by organic ligands only and have greater tolerance to processing conditions necessary for incorporation into solid state structures or for other applications. Some examples of core-shell nanocrystals reported earlier include CdS on CdSe [29], CdSe on CdS, [30], ZnS on CdS, [31] ZnS on CdSe[28, 32], ZnSe on CdSe [33] and CdS/HgS/CdS [34]. The characterization and preparation of a new core-shell structure, CdSe nanocrystals overcoated by different shells (CdS, ZnS), is presented in chapter 4. Type-I core-shell structures as mentioned above greatly improve the photoluminescence quantum yield and chemical and photochemical stability of nanocrystals. The emission wavelengths of type-I core/shell nanocrystals typically only shows a small red-shift when compared to the plain core nanocrystals. [30, 31, 35] In contrast to type-I core-shell nanocrystals, only few studies have been conducted on colloidal type-II core/shell structures [36-38] which are characterized by a staggered alignment of conduction and valence bands giving rise to a broad tunability of absorption and emission wavelengths, as was shown for CdTe/CdSe core-shell nanocrystals. [36] The emission of type-II core/shell nanocrystals mainly originates from the radiative recombination of electron-hole pairs across the core-shell interface leading to a long photoluminescence lifetime. Type-II core/shell nanocrystals are promising with respect to photoconduction or photovoltaic applications as has been discussed in the literature.[39] Novel type-II core-shell structures with ZnTe cores are reported in chapter 5. The recent progress in the shape control of semiconductor nanocrystals opens new fields of applications. For instance, rod shaped CdSe nanocrystals can enhance the photo-electro conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells, [40, 41] and also allow for polarized emission in light emitting diodes. [42, 43] Shape control of anisotropic nanocrystals can be achieved by the use of surfactants, [44, 45] regular or inverse micelles as regulating agents, [46, 47] electrochemical processes, [48] template-assisted [49, 50] and solution-liquid-solution (SLS) growth mechnism. [51-53] Recently, formation of various CdSe nanocrystal shapes has been reported by the groups of Alivisatos [54] and Peng, [55] respectively. Furthermore, it has been reported by the group of Prasad [56] that noble metal nanoparticles can induce anisotropic growth of CdSe nanocrystals at lower temperatures than typically used in other methods for preparing anisotropic CdSe structures. Although several approaches for anisotropic crystal growth have been reported by now, developing new synthetic methods for the shape control of colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals remains an important goal. Accordingly, we have attempted to utilize a crystal phase control approach for the controllable synthesis of colloidal ZnE/CdSe (E = S, Se, Te) heterostructures in a variety of morphologies. The complex heterostructures obtained are presented in chapter 6. The unique optical properties of nanocrystals make them appealing as in vivo and in vitro fluorophores in a variety of biological and chemical investigations, in which traditional fluorescence labels based on organic molecules fall short of providing long-term stability and simultaneous detection of multiple emission colours [References]. The ability to prepare water soluble nanocrystals with high stability and quantum yield has led to promising applications in cellular labeling, [57, 58] deep-tissue imaging, [59, 60] and assay labeling [61, 62]. Furthermore, appropriately solubilized nanocrystals have been used as donors in fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) couples. [63-65] Despite recent progress, much work still needs to be done to achieve reproducible and robust surface functionalization and develop flexible (bio-) conjugation techniques. Based on multi-shell CdSe nanocrystals, several new solubilization and ligand exchange protocols have been developed which are presented in chapter 7. The organization of this thesis is as follows: A short overview describing synthesis and properties of CdSe nanocrystals is given in chapter 2. Chapter 3 is the experimental part providing some background information about the optical and analytical methods used in this thesis. The following chapters report the results of this work: synthesis and characterization of type-I multi-shell and type-II core/shell nanocrystals are described in chapter 4 and chapter 5, respectively. In chapter 6, a high–yield synthesis of various CdSe architectures by crystal phase control is reported. Experiments about surface modification of nanocrystals are described in chapter 7. At last, a short summary of the results is given in chapter 8.

Oligomerization and protein-protein interactions of the sensory histidine kinase DcuS in Escherichia coli

DcuS is a membrane-integral sensory histidine kinase involved in the DcuSR two-component regulatory system in Escherichia coli by regulating the gene expression of C4-dicarboxylate metabolism in response to external stimuli. How DcuS mediates the signal transduction across the membrane remains little understood. This study focused on the oligomerization and protein-protein interactions of DcuS by using quantitative Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) spectroscopy. A quantitative FRET analysis for fluorescence spectroscopy has been developed in this study, consisting of three steps: (1) flexible background subtraction to yield background-free spectra, (2) a FRET quantification method to determine FRET efficiency (E) and donor fraction (fD = [donor] / ([donor]+[acceptor])) from the spectra, and (3) a model to determine the degree of oligomerization (interaction stoichiometry) in the protein complexes based on E vs. fD. The accuracy and applicability of this analysis was validated by theoretical simulations and experimental systems. These three steps were integrated into a computer procedure as an automatic quantitative FRET analysis which is easy, fast, and allows high-throughout to quantify FRET accurately and robustly, even in living cells. This method was subsequently applied to investigate oligomerization and protein-protein interactions, in particular in living cells. Cyan (CFP) and yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), two spectral variants of green fluorescent protein, were used as a donor-acceptor pair for in vivo measurements. Based on CFP- and YFP-fusions of non-interacting membrane proteins in the cell membrane, a minor FRET signal (E = 0.06 ± 0.01) can be regarded as an estimate of direct interaction between CFP and YFP moieties of fusion proteins co-localized in the cell membrane (false-positive). To confirm if the FRET occurrence is specific to the interaction of the investigated proteins, their FRET efficiency should be clearly above E = 0.06. The oligomeric state of DcuS was examined both in vivo (CFP/YFP) and in vitro (two different donor-acceptor pairs of organic dyes) by three independent experimental systems. The consistent occurrence of FRET in vitro and in vivo provides the evidence for the homo-dimerization of DcuS as full-length protein for the first time. Moreover, novel interactions (hetero-complexes) between DcuS and its functionally related proteins, citrate-specific sensor kinase CitA and aerobic dicarboxylate transporter DctA respectively, have been identified for the first time by intermolecular FRET in vivo. This analysis can be widely applied as a robust method to determine the interaction stoichiometry of protein complexes for other proteins of interest labeled with adequate fluorophores in vitro or in vivo.

Molecular interaction of the human metalloprotease meprin beta with the amyloid precursor protein, ADAM10, and ADAM17 based on proteomics

Die Zinkendopeptidasen Meprin α und β sind Schlüsselkomponenten in patho(physiologischen) Prozessen wie Entzündung, Kollagenassemblierung und Angiogenese. Nach ihrer Entdeckung in murinen Bürstensaummembranen und humanen Darmepithelien, wurden weitere Expressionsorte identifiziert, z.B. Leukozyten, Krebszellen und die humane Haut. Tiermodelle, Zellkulturen und biochemische Analysen weisen auf Funktionen der Meprine in der Epithelialdifferenzierung, Zellmigration, Matrixmodellierung, Angiogenese, Bindegewebsausbildung und immunologische Prozesse hin. Dennoch sind ihre physiologischen Substrate weitgehend noch unbekannt. Massenspektrometrisch basierte Proteomics-Analysen enthüllten eine einzigartige Spaltspezifität für saure Aminosäurereste in der P1´ Position und identifizierten neue biologische Substratkandidaten. Unter den 269 extrazellulären Proteinen, die in einem Substratscreen identifiziert wurden, stellten sich das amyloid precursor protein (APP) and ADAM10 (a disintegrin and metalloprotease 10) als sehr vielversprechende Kandidaten heraus. Mehrere Schnittstellen innerhalb des APP Proteins, hervorgerufen durch verschiedenen Proteasen, haben unterschiedlichen Auswirkungen zur Folge. Die β-Sekretase BACE (β-site APP cleaving enzyme) prozessiert APP an einer Schnittstelle, welche als initialer Schritt in der Entwicklung der Alzheimer Erkrankung gilt. Toxische Aβ (Amyloid β)-Peptide werden in den extrazellulären Raum freigesetzt und aggregieren dort zu senilen Plaques. Membran verankertes Meprin β hat eine β-Sekretase Aktivität, die in einem Zellkultur-basierten System bestätigt werden konnte. Die proteolytische Effizienz von Meprin β wurde in FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer)-Analysen bestimmt und war um den Faktor 104 höher als die von BACE1. Weiterhin konnte gezeigt werden, dass Meprin β die ersten zwei Aminosäuren prozessiert und somit aminoterminal einen Glutamatrest freisetzt, welcher nachfolgend durch die Glutaminylzyklase in ein Pyroglutamat zykliert werden kann. Trunkierte Aβ-Peptide werden nur in Alzheimer Patienten generiert. Aufgrund einer erhöhten Hydrophobie weisen diese Peptide eine höhere Tendenz zur Aggregation auf und somit eine erhöhte Toxizität. Bis heute wurde keine Protease identifiziert, welche diese Schnittstelle prozessiert. Die Bildung der Meprin vermittelten N-terminalen APP Fragmenten wurde in vitro und in vivo detektiert. Diese N-APP Peptide hatten keine cytotoxischen Auswirkungen auf murine und humane Gehirnzellen, obwohl zuvor N-APP als Ligand für den death receptor (DR) 6 identifiziert wurde, der für axonale Degenerationsprozesse verantwortlich ist. rnIm nicht-amyloidogenen Weg prozessiert ADAM10 APP und entlässt die Ektodomäne von der Zellmembran. Wir konnten das ADAM10 Propeptid als Substrat von Meprin β identifizieren und in FRET Analysen, in vitro und in vivo zeigen, dass die Meprin vermittelte Prozessierung zu einer erhöhten ADAM10 Aktivität führt. Darüber hinaus wurde ADAM10 als Sheddase für Meprin β identifiziert. Shedding konnte durch Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) oder durch das Ionophor A23187 hervorgerufen werden, sowie durch ADAM10 Inhibitoren blockiert werden. rnDiese Arbeit konnte somit ein komplexes proteolytisches Netwerk innerhalb der Neurophysiologie aufdecken, welches für die Entwicklung der Alzheimer Demenz wichtig sein kann.rn

Biologischer Lichtsammler (LHCII) für Halbleiternanokristalle (Quantum Dots)

Der light harvesting complex II (LHCII) ist ein pflanzliches Membranprotein, das in seiner trimeren Form über 40 Chlorophylle bindet. In der Pflanze kann er besonders effizient Licht sammeln und die Anregungsenergie anschließend fast verlustfrei über andere chlorophyll-bindende Proteine an die Reaktionszentren weiterleiten. Aufgrund dieser besonderen Eigenschaften war es ein Ziel dieser Arbeit, rekombinanten LHCII mit synthetischen Komponenten zu kombinieren, die zur Ladungstrennung befähigt sind. Zu diesem Zweck wurden unter anderem Halbleiternanokristalle (Quantum Dots, QDs) ausgewählt, die je nach Zusammensetzung sowohl als Energieakzeptoren als auch als Energiedonoren in Frage kamen. Durch Optimierung des Puffers gelang es, die Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute der QDs in wässriger Lösung zu erhöhen und zu stabilisieren, so dass die Grundvoraussetzungen für die spektroskopische Untersuchung verschiedener LHCII-QD-Hybridkomplexe erfüllt waren.rnUnter Verwendung bereits etablierter Affinitätssequenzen zur Bindung des LHCII an die QDs konnte gezeigt werden, dass die in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Typ-I QDs aus CdSe und ZnS sich kaum als Energie-Donoren für den LHCII eignen. Ein Hauptgrund lag im vergleichsweise kleinen Försterradius R0 von 4,1 nm. Im Gegensatz dazu wurde ein R0 von 6,4 nm für den LHCII als Donor und Typ-II QDs aus CdTe, CdSe und ZnS als Akzeptor errechnet, wodurch in diesem System eine höhere Effizienz des Energietransfers zu erwarten war. Fluoreszenzspektroskopische Untersuchungen von Hybridkomplexen aus LHCII und Typ-II QDs ergaben eine hohe Plausibilität für einen Fluoreszenz Resonanz Energietransfer (FRET) vom Lichtsammler auf die QDs. Weitere QD-Affinitätssequenzen für den LHCII wurden identifiziert und deren Bindekonstanten ermittelt. Versuche mit dem Elektronenakzeptor Methylviologen lieferten gute Hinweise auf eine LHCII-sensibilisierte Ladungstrennung der Typ-II QDs, auch wenn dies noch anhand alternativer Messmethoden wie z.B. durch transiente Absorptionsspektroskopie bestätigt werden muss. rnEin weiteres Ziel war die Verwendung von LHCII als Lichtsammler in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). Geeignete dotierte TiO2-Platten wurden ermittelt, das Verfahren zur Belegung der Platten optimiert und daher mit wenig Aufwand eine hohe LHCII-Belegungsdichte erzielt. Erste Messungen von Aktionsspektren mit LHCII und einem zur Ladungstrennung fähigen Rylenfarbstoff zeigen eine, wenn auch geringe, LHCII sensibilisierte Ladungstrennung. rnDie Verwendung von Lanthanide-Binding-Tags (LBTs) ist ein potentielles Verfahren zur in vivo-Markierung von Proteinen mit Lanthanoiden wie Europium und Terbium. Diese Metalle besitzen eine überdurchschnittlich lange Lumineszenzlebensdauer, so dass sie leicht von anderen fluoreszierenden Molekülen unterschieden werden können. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit gelang es, eine LBT in rekombinanten LHCII einzubauen und einen Lumineszenz Resonanz Energietransfer (LRET) vom Europium auf den LHCII nachzuweisen.rn

Lichtsammler hinter Glas : Stabilisierung und Funktionalisierung des pflanzlichen Hauptlichtsammelkomplexes (LHCII) durch biomineralische Einbettung in Nanopartikel

Der Haupt-Lichtsammelkomplex des Fotosystems II (LHCII) setzt sich aus einem Proteinanteil und nicht-kovalent gebundenen Pigmenten – 8 Chlorophyll a, 6 Chlorophyll b und 4 Carotinoide - zusammen. Er assembliert in vivo zu einem Trimer, in dem die Monomereinheiten ebenfalls nicht-kovalent miteinander wechselwirken. Die ausgesprochen hohe Farbstoffdichte und die Tatsache, dass der Komplex rekombinant hergestellt werden kann, machen den LHCII zu einem interessanten Kandidaten für technische Anwendungen wie einer Farbstoffsolarzelle. Allerdings muss hierzu seine thermische Stabilität drastisch erhöht werden.rnDer Einschluss von Proteinen/Enzymen in Silikat erhöht deren Stabilität gegenüber Hitze signifikant. LHCII sollte als erster rekombinanter Membranproteinkomplex mittels kovalent verbundener, polykationischen Sequenzen in Silikat eingeschlossen werden. Hierzu wurde der Komplex auf zwei Weisen polykationisch modifiziert: Auf Genebene wurde die Sequenz des R5-Peptids in den N-terminalen Bereich des LHCP-Gens eingeführt und ein Protokoll zur Überexpression, Rekonstitution und Trimerisierung etabliert. Außerdem wurde eine kovalente Modifikation des trimeren LHCII mit dem Arginin-reichen Protamin über heterobifunktionelle Crosslinker entwickelt. Beide resultierenden LHCII-Derivate waren in der Lage, Silikat autogen zu fällen. Die Stabilisierung der so in Silikat präzipitierten Komplexe war jedoch deutlich geringer als bei nicht-modifizierten Komplexen, die durch eine Spermin-induzierte Copräzipitation eingeschlossenen wurden. Dabei zeigte sich, dass für den Anteil der eingebauten Komplexe und das Ausmaß an Stabilisierung die Größe und klare partikuläre Struktur des Silikats entscheidend ist. Kleine Partikel mit einem Durchmesser von etwa 20 nm führten zu einem Einbau von rund 75 % der Komplexe, und mehr als 80 % des Energietransfers innerhalb des Komplexes blieben erhalten, wenn für 24 Stunden bei 50°C inkubiert wurde. Nicht in Silikat eingeschlossene Komplexe verloren bei 50°C ihren Komplex-internen Energietransfer binnen weniger Minuten. Es war dabei unerheblich, ob die Partikelgröße durch die Wahl des Puffers und des entsprechenden pH-Wertes, oder aber durch Variation des Spermin-zu-Kieselsäure-Verhältnisses erreicht wurde. Wurden die polykationisch veränderten Komplexe in solchen Copräzipitationen verwendet, so erhöhte sich der Anteil an eingebauten Komplexen auf über 90 %, jedoch wurde nur bei der R5-modifizierten Variante vergleichbare Ausmaße an Stabilisierung erreicht. Ein noch höherer Anteil an Komplexen wurde in das Silikatpellet eingebaut, wenn LHCII kovalent mit Silanolgruppen modifiziert wurde (95 %); jedoch war das Ausmaß der Stabilisierung wiederum geringer als bei einer Copräzipitation. Die analysierten Fällungssysteme waren außerdem in der Lage, Titandioxid zu fällen, wobei der Komplex in dieses eingebaut wurde. Allerdings muss das Stabilisierungspotential hier noch untersucht werden. Innerhalb eines Silikatpräzipitats aggregierten die Komplexe nicht, zeigten aber einen inter-trimeren Energietransfer, der sehr wahrscheinlich auf einem Förster Resonanz Mechanismus basiert. rnDies und das hohe Maß an Stabilisierung eröffnen neue Möglichkeiten, rekombinanten LHCII in technischen Applikationen als Lichtsammelkomponente zu verwenden.rn