Detailed analyses of mutations affecting structural formation of neuromuscular synapses in Drosophila melanogaster

The establishment of appropriate synapses between neurons and their target cells is an essential requirement for the formation of functional neuronal circuits. However, there is very little insight into the mechanisms underlying de novo formation of synapses and synaptic terminals. To identify novel genes involved in signalling or structural aspects of these processes I capitalised on possibilities provided by the model organism Drosophila. Thus, I contributed to a screen of a collection of third chromosomal mutations (Salzberg et al., 1997, Genetics 147, 1723ff.) selecting those mutant strains displaying structural defects of Drosophila neuromuscular junctions (NMJ). Carrying out genetic mapping experiments, I could assign 7 genes to interesting candidate mutations. All 7 mutations selected in this process cause size alterations of the embryonic NMJ, and one shows additional disturbances in the distribution of synaptic markers. 4 of these turned out to be transcription factors, not falling into the remit of this project. Only for one of these, the neuronal transcription factor Castor, I could show that its overgrown mutant NMJ phenotype is due to an increase in the number of motorneurons. The remaining genes encode a potential nitrophenylphosphatase, the translation initiation factor eIF4AIII, and a novel protein Waharan. Unfortunately, the nitophenylphosphatase gene was identified too late to carry out functional studies in the context of this project, but potential roles are discussed. eIF4AIII promotes NMJ size tempting to speculate that local translation at the NMJ is affected. I found that the synaptic scaffolding molecule Discs large (Dlg; orthologue of PSD95) is upregulated at eIF4AIII mutant NMJs. Targeted upregulation of Dlg can not mimic the eIF4AIII mutant phenotype, but dlg mutations suppress it. Therefore, Dlg function is required but not sufficient in this context. My findings are discussed in detail, pointing out future directions. The main focus of this work is the completely novel gene waharan (wah), an orthologue of the human gene KIAA1267 encoding a big brain protein of likewise unknown structure and function. My studies show that mutations or RNAi knock-down of wah cause NMJ overgrowth and reveal additional crucial roles in the patterning of wing imginal discs. RNAi studies suggest Wah to be required pre- and postsynaptically at NMJs and, consistently, wah is transcribed in the nervous system and muscles. Anti-Wah antisera were produced but could no longer be tested here, but preliminary studies with newly generated HA-targeted constructs suggest that Wah localises at NMJs and in neuronal nuclei. In silico analyses predict Wah to be structurally related to the Rad23-family of proteins, likely to target ubiquitinated proteins to the proteasome for degradation (Chen et al., 2002, Mol Cell Biol 22, 4902ff.) . In agreement with this prediction, poly-ubiquitinated proteins were found to accumulate in the absence of wah function, and wah-like mutant phenotypes were induced in NMJs and wing discs by knocking down proteasome function. My analysis further revealed that poly-ubiquitinated proteins are reduced in nuclei of wah mutant neurons and muscles, suggesting that Wah may play additional roles in ubiquitin-mediated nuclear import. Taken together, this study has uncovered a number of interesting candidate genes required for the de novo formation of Drosophila NMJs. 3 of these genes fell into the focus of this project. As discussed in detail, discovery of these genes and insights gained into their function have high potential to be translatable into vertebrate systems.

Applications of remote sensing and geographic information systems in geomorphological studies: Safaga - El Quseir area, Red Sea coast, Egypt as an example

In den letzten drei Jahrzehnten sind Fernerkundung und GIS in den Geowissenschaften zunehmend wichtiger geworden, um die konventionellen Methoden von Datensammlung und zur Herstellung von Landkarten zu verbessern. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit der Anwendung von Fernerkundung und geographischen Informationssystemen (GIS) für geomorphologische Untersuchungen. Durch die Kombination beider Techniken ist es vor allem möglich geworden, geomorphologische Formen im Überblick und dennoch detailliert zu erfassen. Als Grundlagen werden in dieser Arbeit topographische und geologische Karten, Satellitenbilder und Klimadaten benutzt. Die Arbeit besteht aus 6 Kapiteln. Das erste Kapitel gibt einen allgemeinen Überblick über den Untersuchungsraum. Dieser umfasst folgende morphologische Einheiten, klimatischen Verhältnisse, insbesondere die Ariditätsindizes der Küsten- und Gebirgslandschaft sowie das Siedlungsmuster beschrieben. Kapitel 2 befasst sich mit der regionalen Geologie und Stratigraphie des Untersuchungsraumes. Es wird versucht, die Hauptformationen mit Hilfe von ETM-Satellitenbildern zu identifizieren. Angewandt werden hierzu folgende Methoden: Colour Band Composite, Image Rationing und die sog. überwachte Klassifikation. Kapitel 3 enthält eine Beschreibung der strukturell bedingten Oberflächenformen, um die Wechselwirkung zwischen Tektonik und geomorphologischen Prozessen aufzuklären. Es geht es um die vielfältigen Methoden, zum Beispiel das sog. Image Processing, um die im Gebirgskörper vorhandenen Lineamente einwandfrei zu deuten. Spezielle Filtermethoden werden angewandt, um die wichtigsten Lineamente zu kartieren. Kapitel 4 stellt den Versuch dar, mit Hilfe von aufbereiteten SRTM-Satellitenbildern eine automatisierte Erfassung des Gewässernetzes. Es wird ausführlich diskutiert, inwieweit bei diesen Arbeitsschritten die Qualität kleinmaßstäbiger SRTM-Satellitenbilder mit großmaßstäbigen topographischen Karten vergleichbar ist. Weiterhin werden hydrologische Parameter über eine qualitative und quantitative Analyse des Abflussregimes einzelner Wadis erfasst. Der Ursprung von Entwässerungssystemen wird auf der Basis geomorphologischer und geologischer Befunde interpretiert. Kapitel 5 befasst sich mit der Abschätzung der Gefahr episodischer Wadifluten. Die Wahrscheinlichkeit ihres jährlichen Auftretens bzw. des Auftretens starker Fluten im Abstand mehrerer Jahre wird in einer historischen Betrachtung bis 1921 zurückverfolgt. Die Bedeutung von Regentiefs, die sich über dem Roten Meer entwickeln, und die für eine Abflussbildung in Frage kommen, wird mit Hilfe der IDW-Methode (Inverse Distance Weighted) untersucht. Betrachtet werden außerdem weitere, regenbringende Wetterlagen mit Hilfe von Meteosat Infrarotbildern. Genauer betrachtet wird die Periode 1990-1997, in der kräftige, Wadifluten auslösende Regenfälle auftraten. Flutereignisse und Fluthöhe werden anhand von hydrographischen Daten (Pegelmessungen) ermittelt. Auch die Landnutzung und Siedlungsstruktur im Einzugsgebiet eines Wadis wird berücksichtigt. In Kapitel 6 geht es um die unterschiedlichen Küstenformen auf der Westseite des Roten Meeres zum Beispiel die Erosionsformen, Aufbauformen, untergetauchte Formen. Im abschließenden Teil geht es um die Stratigraphie und zeitliche Zuordnung von submarinen Terrassen auf Korallenriffen sowie den Vergleich mit anderen solcher Terrassen an der ägyptischen Rotmeerküste westlich und östlich der Sinai-Halbinsel.

Structural characterisation of tBLMs

Biological membranes are one of the vital key elements of life but are also highly complex architectures. Therefore, various model membrane systems have been developed to enable systematic investigations of different membrane related processes. A biomimetic model architecture should provide a simplified system, which allows for systematic investigation of the membrane while maintaining the essential membrane characteristics such as membrane fluidity or electrical sealing properties. This work has been focused on two complementary parts. In a first part, the behaviour of the whey protein ß-lactoglobulin (ßlg) at a membrane interface has been investigated. Protein-lipid interactions have been studied using Langmuir monolayers at the air-water interface and tethered bilayer lipid membranes. A combination of different surface analytical techniques such as surface plasmon spectroscopy, neutron reflectivity and electrochemical techniques allowed for a detailed analysis of the underlying processes. Those experiments showed that the protein adsorbed in native confirmation, slightly flattened, to hydrophobic monolayers. If hydrophilic bilayers with defects were present, ßlg penetrated the upper layer. Interactions with phospholipids were only observed if the protein was denatured beforehand. Experiments at the air-water interface showed a more rigid conformation of the protein at acidic pH compared to alkaline pH. In the second part of this work, the structure of different model membrane systems has been investigated. Solid supported membrane systems have been established as powerful biomimetic architectures, which allow for the systematic investigation of various membrane related processes. Additionally, these systems have been proposed for biosensing applications. Tethered bilayer lipid membranes (tBLMS) are one type of solid supported membranes. The structure of the anchor lipid that tethers the membrane to the solid support has a significant impact on the membrane properties. Especially the sub-membrane part, which is defined by the spacer group, is important for the biological activity of incorporated membrane proteins. Various anchor lipids have been synthesised with different spacer and anchor groups. An increase of the spacer length led to a direct increase of the water reservoir beneath the membrane. However, this elongation also resulted in an amplified roughness of the monolayer and subsequently to diminished mechanical and electrical bilayer qualities. Additionally, a cholesterol-spacer had been designed to modulate the membrane fluidity. Model membrane systems with additional cholesterol-spacer or upper bilayer leaflets with additional cholesterol also exhibited an increased water reservoir with only slightly diminished mechanical and electrical abilities. Both parts show that tBLMs are very effective model systems that can be applied as biomimetic platforms to study for example lipid-protein interactions. They also enable the incorporation of ion channels and allow for potential biosensing application.

Mineral chemistry and structural relationships of inclusions in diamond samples

Diamant ist das härteste Mineral – und dazu ein Edelstein -, das unter höchstem Druck und hohen Temperaturen in tiefen kontinentalen Regionen der Erde kristallisiert. Die Mineraleinschlüsse in Diamanten werden durch die physikalische Stabilität und chemische Beständigkeit der umgebenden – eigentlich metastabilen -Diamant-Phase geschützt. Aufgrund der koexistierenden Phasenkombination ermöglichen sie, die Mineral-Entwicklung zu studieren, während deren der Einschlüssen und die Diamanten kristallisierten. rnDie Phasenkombinationen von Diamant und Chrom-Pyrop, Chrom-Diopsid, Chromit, Olivin, Graphit und Enstatit nebeneinander (teilweise in Berührungsexistenz) mit Chrom-Pyrop Einschlüssen wurden von neunundzwanzig Diamant-Proben von sechs Standorten in Südafrika (Premier, Koffiefontein, De Beers Pool, Finsch, Venetia und Koingnaas Minen) und Udachnaya (Sibirien/Russland) identifiziert und charakterisiert. Die Mineraleinschlüsse weisen z.T. kubo-oktaedrische Form auf, die unabhängig von ihren eigenen Kristallsystemen ausgebildet werden können. Das bedeutet, dass sie syngenetische Einschlüsse sind, die durch die sehr hohe Formenergie des umgebenden Diamanten morphologisch unter Zwang stehen. Aus zweidiemnsionalen Messungen der ersten Ordnung von charakteristischen Raman-Banden lassen sich relative Restdrucke in Diamanten zwischen Diamant und Einschlussmineral gewinnen; sie haben charakteristische Werte von ca. 0,4 bis 0,9 GPa um Chrom-Pyrop-Einschlüsse, 0,6 bis 2,0 GPa um Chrom-Diopsid-Einschlüsse, 0,3 bis 1,2 GPa um Olivin-Einschlüsse, 0,2 bis 1,0 GPa um Chromit-Einschlüsse, beziehungsweise 0,5 GPa um Graphit Einschlüsse.rnDie kristallstrukturellen Beziehung von Diamanten und ihren monomineralischen Einschlüssen wurden mit Hilfe der Quantifizierung der Winkelkorrelationen zwischen der [111] Richtung von Diamanten und spezifisch ausgewählten Richtungen ihrer mineralischen Einschlüsse untersucht. Die Winkelkorrelationen zwischen Diamant [111] und Chrom-Pyrop [111] oder Chromit [111] zeigen die kleinsten Verzerrungen von 2,2 bis zu 3,4. Die Chrom-Diopsid- und Olivin-Einschlüsse zeigen die Missorientierungswerte mit Diamant [111] bis zu 10,2 und 12,9 von Chrom-Diopsid [010] beziehungsweise Olivin [100].rnDie chemische Zusammensetzung von neun herausgearbeiteten (orientiertes Anschleifen) Einschlüssen (drei Chrom-Pyrop-Einschlüsse von Koffiefontein-, Finsch- und Venetia-Mine (zwei von drei koexistieren nebeneinander mit Enstatit), ein Chromit von Udachnaya (Sibirien/Russland), drei Chrom-Diopside von Koffiefontein, Koingnaas und Udachnaya (Sibirien/Russland) und zwei Olivin Einschlüsse von De Beers Pool und Koingnaas) wurden mit Hilfe EPMA und LA-ICP-MS analysiert. Auf der Grundlage der chemischen Zusammensetzung können die Mineraleinschlüsse in Diamanten in dieser Arbeit der peridotitischen Suite zugeordnet werden.rnDie Geothermobarometrie-Untersuchungen waren aufgrund der berührenden Koexistenz von Chrom-Pyrop- und Enstatit in einzelnen Diamanten möglich. Durchschnittliche Temperaturen und Drücke der Bildung sind mit ca. 1087 (± 15) C, 5,2 (± 0,1) GPa für Diamant DHK6.2 von der Koffiefontein Mine beziehungsweise ca. 1041 (± 5) C, 5,0 (± 0,1) GPa für Diamant DHF10.2 von der Finsch Mine zu interpretieren.rn

Interplay of pi–pi stacking and hydrogen bonding in conjugated supramolecular systems studied by solid-state NMR

In this work supramolecular organic systems based on rigid pi-conjugated building blocks and flexible side chains were studied via solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Specifically, these studies focussed on phenylene ethynylene based macrocycles, polymer systems including polythiophenes, and rod-coil copolymers of oligo(p-benzamide) and poly(ethylene glycol). All systems were studied in terms of the local order and mobility. The central topic of this dissertation was to elucidate the role of the flexible side chains in interplay of different non-covalent interactions, like pi-pi-stacking and hydrogen bonding.Combining the results of this work, it can be concluded that the ratio of the rigid block and the attached alkyl side chains can be crucial for the design of an ordered pi-conjugated supramolecular system. Through alkyl side chains, it is also possible to introduce liquid-crystalline phases in the system, which can foster the local order of the system. Moreover in the studied system longer, unbranched alkyl side chains are better suited to stabilize the corresponding aggregation than shorter, branched ones.The combination of non-covalent interactions such as pi-pi-stacking and hydrogen bonding play an important role for structure formation. However, the effect of pi-pi-stacking interaction is much weaker than the effect of hydrogen bonding and is only observed in systems with a suitable local order. Hence, they are often not strong enough to control the local order. In contrast, hydrogen bonds predominantly influence the structural organization and packing. In comparison the size of the alkyl side chains is only of minor importance. The suppression of certain hydrogen bonds can lead to completely different structures and can induce a specific aggregation behavior. Thus, for the design of a supramolecular ordered system the presence of hydrogen bonding efficiently stabilizes the corresponding structure, but the ratio of hydrogen bond forming groups should be kept low to be able to influence the structure selectively.

Characterization of structure and dynamics of submicrometric systems via fluorescence correlation spectroscopy

The presented thesis revolves around the study of thermally-responsive PNIPAAm-based hydrogels in water/based environments, as studied by Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS).rnThe goal of the project was the engineering of PNIPAAm gels into biosensors. Specifically, a gamma of such gels were both investigated concerning their dynamics and structure at the nanometer scale, and their performance in retaining bound bodies upon thermal collapse (which PNIPAAm undergoes upon heating above 32 ºC).rnFCS’s requirements, as a technique, match the limitations imposed by the system. Namely, the need to intimately probe a system in a solvent, which was also fragile and easy to alter. FCS, on the other hand, both requires a fluid environment to work, and is based on the observation of diffusion of fluorescents at nanomolar concentrations. FCS was applied to probe the hydrogels on the nanometer size with minimal invasivity.rnVariables in the gels were addressed in the project including crosslinking degree; structural changes during thermal collapse; behavior in different buffers; the possibility of decreasing the degree of inhomogeneity; behavior of differently sized probes; and the effectiveness of antibody functionalization upon thermal collapse.rnThe evidenced results included the heightening of structural inhomogeneities during thermal collapse and under different buffer conditions; the use of annealing to decrease the inhomogeneity degree; the use of differently sized probes to address different length scale of the gel; and the successful functionalization before and after collapse.rnThe thesis also addresses two side projects, also carried forward via FCS. One, diffusion in inverse opals, produced a predictive simulation model for diffusion of bodies in confined systems as dependent on the bodies’ size versus the characteristic sizes of the system. The other was the observation of interaction of bodies of opposite charge in a water solution, resulting in a phenomenological theory and an evaluation method for both the average residence time of the different bodies together, and their attachment likelihood.

Molecular dynamics simulations of sheared brush-like systems

Mit Hilfe von Molekulardynamik-Simulationen untersuchen wir bürstenartige Systeme unter guten Lösungsmittelbedingungen. Diese Systeme sind, dank ihren vielfältigen Beschaffenheiten, die von Molekularparametern und äußeren Bedingungen abhängig sind, wichtig für viele industrielle Anwendungen. Man vermutet, dass die Polymerbürsten eine entscheidende Rolle in der Natur wegen ihrer einzigartigen Gleiteigenschaften spielen. Ein vergröbertes Modell wird verwendet, um die strukturellen und dynamischen Eigenschaften zweier hochkomprimierter Polymerbürsten, die eine niedrige Reibung aufweisen, zu untersuchen. Allerdings sind die Lubrikationseigenschaften dieser Systeme, die in vielen biologischen Systemen vorhanden sind, beeinflußt. Wir untersuchen so-genannte "weiche Kolloide", die zwischen den beiden Polymerbürsten eingebettet sind, und wie diese Makroobjekte auf die Polymerbürsten wirken.rnrnNicht-Gleichgewichts-Molekulardynamik-Simulationen werden durchgeführt, in denen die hydrodynamischen Wechselwirkungen durch die Anwendung des DPD-Thermostaten mit expliziten Lösungsmittelmolekülen berücksichtigt werden. Wir zeigen, dass die Kenntnis der Gleichgewichtseigenschaften des Systems erlaubt, dynamische Nichtgleichgewichtsigenschaften der Doppelschicht vorherzusagen.rnrnWir untersuchen, wie die effektive Wechselwirkung zwischen kolloidalen Einschlüßen durch die Anwesenheit der Bürsten (in Abhängigkeit der Weichheit der Kolloide und der Pfropfdichte der Bürsten) beeinflußt wird. Als nächsten Schritt untersuchen wir die rheologische Antwort von solchen komplexen Doppelschichten auf Scherung. Wir entwickeln eine Skalen-Theorie, die die Abhängigkeit der makroskopischen Transporteigenschaften und der lateralen Ausdehnung der verankerten Ketten von der Weissenberg Zahl oberhalb des Bereichs, in dem die lineare Antwort-Theorie gilt, voraussagt. Die Vorhersagen der Theorie stimmen gut mit unseren und früheren numerischen Ergebnissen und neuen Experimenten überein. Unsere Theorie bietet die Möglichkeit, die Relaxationszeit der Doppelschicht zu berechnen. Wenn diese Zeit mit einer charakteristischen Längenskala kombiniert wird, kann auch das ''transiente'' (nicht-stationäre) Verhalten beschrieben werden.rnrnrnWir untersuchen die Antwort des Drucktensors und die Deformation der Bürsten während der Scherinvertierung für grosse Weissenberg Zahlen. Wir entwickeln eine Vorhersage für die charakteristische Zeit, nach der das System wieder den stationären Zustand erreicht.rnrnrnElektrostatik spielt eine bedeutende Rolle in vielen biologischen Prozessen. Die Lubrikationseigenschaften der Polymerbürsten werden durch die Anwesenheit langreichweitiger Wechselwirkungen stark beeinflusst. Für unterschiedliche Stärken der elektrostatischen Wechselwirkungen untersuchen wir rheologische Eigenschaften der Doppelschicht und vergleichen mit neutralen Systemen. Wir studieren den kontinuierlichen Übergang der Systemeigenschaften von neutralen zu stark geladenen Bürsten durch Variation der Bjerrumlänge und der Ladungsdichte.

Hypersonic phonon propagation in mesoscopic systems by Brillouin spectroscopy

Phononic crystals, capable to block or direct the propagation of elastic/acoustic waves, have attracted increasing interdisciplinary interest across condensed matter physics and materials science. As of today, no generalized full description of elastic wave propagation in phononic structures is available, mainly due to the large number of variables determining the band diagram. Therefore, this thesis aims for a deeper understanding of the fundamental concepts governing wave propagation in mesoscopic structures by investigation of appropriate model systems. The phononic dispersion relation at hypersonic frequencies is directly investigated by the non-destructive technique of high-resolution spontaneous Brillouin light scattering (BLS) combined with computational methods. Due to the vector nature of the elastic wave propagation, we first studied the hypersonic band structure of hybrid superlattices. These 1D phononic crystals composed of alternating layers of hard and soft materials feature large Bragg gaps. BLS spectra are sensitive probes of the moduli, photo-elastic constants and structural parameters of the constituent components. Engineering of the band structure can be realized by introduction of defects. Here, cavity layers are employed to launch additional modes that modify the dispersion of the undisturbed superlattice, with extraordinary implications to the band gap region. Density of states calculations in conjunction with the associated deformation allow for unambiguous identication of surface and cavity modes, as well as their interaction with adjacent defects. Next, the role of local resonances in phononic systems is explored in 3D structures based on colloidal particles. In turbid media BLS records the particle vibration spectrum comprising resonant modes due to the spatial confinement of elastic energy. Here, the frequency and lineshapes of the particle eigenmodes are discussed as function of increased interaction and departure from spherical symmetry. The latter is realized by uniaxial stretching of polystyrene spheres, that can be aligned in an alternating electric field. The resulting spheroidal crystals clearly exhibit anisotropic phononic properties. Establishing reliable predictions of acoustic wave propagation, necessary to advance, e.g., optomechanics and phononic devices is the ultimate aim of this thesis.

Mechanical properties and structure of gel systems

Understanding the origins of the mechanical properties and its correlation withrnthe microstructure of gel systems is of great scientific and industrial interest. Inrngeneral, colloidal gels can be classified into chemical and physical gels, accordingrnto the life time of the network bonds. The characteristic di↵erences in gelationrndynamics can be observed with rheological measurements.rnAs a model system, a mixture of sodium silicate and low concentration sulfuric acidrnwas used. Nano-sized silica particles grow and aggregate to a system-spanning gelrnnetwork. The influence of the finite solubility of silica at high pH on the gelationrnwas studied with classical and piezo rheometer. The storage modulus of therngel grew logarithmically with time with two distinct growth laws. A relaxationrnat low frequency was observed in the frequency dependent measurements. I attributernthese two behaviors as a sign of structural rearrangements due to the finiternsolubility of silica at high pH. The reaction equilibrium between formation andrndissolution of bonds leads to a finite life time of the bonds and behavior similar tornphysical gel. The frequency dependence was more pronounced for lower water concentrations,rnhigher temperatures and shorter reaction times. With two relaxationrnmodels, I deduced characteristic relaxation times from the experimental data. Besidesrnrheology, the evolution of silica gels at high pH on di↵erent length scales wasrnstudied by NMR and dynamic light scattering. The results revealed that the primaryrnparticles existed already in sodium silicate and aggregated after the mixingrnof reactants due to a chemical reaction. Throughout the aggregation process thernsystem was in its chemical reaction equilibrium. Applying large oscillatory shearrnstrain to the gel allowed for modifying the gel modulus. The e↵ect of shear andrnshear history on the rheological properties of the gel were investigated. The storagernmodulus of the final gel increased with increasing strain. This behavior can be explained with (i) shear-induced aggregate compaction and (ii) combination ofrnbreakage and new formation of bonds.rnIn comparison with the physical gel-like behavior of the silica gel at high pH, typicalrnchemical gel features were exhibited by other gels formed from various chemicalrnreactions. Influences of the chemical structure modification on the gelation wererninvestigated with the piezo-rheometer. The external stimuli can be applied to tunernthe mechanical properties of the gel systems.

Structural characterization of intermediate and metastable phases by electron microscopy

Structure characterization of nanocrystalline intermediates and metastable phases is of primary importance for a deep understanding of synthetic processes undergoing solid-to-solid state phase transitions. Understanding the evolution from the first nucleation stage to the final synthetic product supports not only the optimization of existing processes, but might assist in tailoring new synthetic paths. A systematic investigation of intermediates and metastable phases is hampered because it is impossible to produce large crystals and only in few cases a pure synthetic product can be obtained. Structure investigation by X-ray powder diffraction methods is still challenging on nanoscale, especially when the sample is polyphasic. Electron diffraction has the advantage to collect data from single nanoscopic crystals, but is limited by data incompleteness, dynamical effects and fast deterioration of the sample under the electron beam. Automated diffraction tomography (ADT), a recently developed technique, making possible to collect more complete three-dimensional electron diffraction data and to reduce at the same time dynamical scattering and beam damage, thus allowing to investigate even beam sensitive materials (f.e. hydrated phases and organics). At present, ADT is the only technique able to deliver complete three-dimensional structural information from single nanoscopic grains, independently from other surrounding phases. Thus, ADT is an ideal technique for the study of on-going processes where different phases exist at the same time and undergo several structural transitions. In this study ADT was used as the main technique for structural characterization for three different systems and combined subsequently with other techniques, among which high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), cryo-TEM imaging, X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and energy disperse X-ray spectroscopy (EDX).rnAs possible laser host materials, i.e. materials with a broad band emission in the near-infrared region, two unknown phases were investigated in the ternary oxide system M2O-Al2O3-WO3 (M = K, Na). Both phases exhibit low purity as well as non-homogeneous size distribution and particle morphology. The structures solved by ADT are also affected by pseudo-symmetry. rnSodium titanate nanotubes and nanowires are both intermediate products in the synthesis of TiO2 nanorods which are used as additives to colloidal TiO2 film for improving efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC). The structural transition from nantubes to nanowires was investigated in a step by step time-resolved study. Nanowires were discovered to consist of a hitherto unknown phase of sodium titanate. This new phase, typically affected by pervasive defects like mutual layer shift, was structurally determined ab-initio on the basis of ADT data. rnThe third system is related with calcium carbonate nucleation and early crystallization. The first part of this study is dedicated to the extensive investigations of calcium carbonate formation in a step by step analysis, up to the appearance of crystalline individua. The second part is dedicated to the structure determination by ADT of the first-to-form anhydrated phase of CaCO3: vaterite. An exhaustive structure analysis of vaterite had previously been hampered by diffuse scattering, extra periodicities and fast deterioration of the material under electron irradiation. rn