Responsive Bürstenpolymere

'Responsive' Bürstenpolymere Bürstenpolymere sind definiert verzweigte Makromoleküle, die aus einer Hauptkette und vielen darauf (kovalent) gepfropften Seitenketten bestehen; ist der Pfropfungsgrad hoch und die Hauptkette wesentlich länger als die Seitenketten, dann haben sie die Form semiflexibler molekularer Zylinder. Lassen sich Form bzw. Ausdehnung eines solchen Zylinders gezielt ansteuern, dann könnten diese Moleküle entweder als (Nano-)Sensoren für die entsprechende Umgebungsbedingung oder als molekulare Motoren eingesetzt werden. Die Idee responsiver Bürstenpolymere beruht auf folgender Überlegung: Die gestreckte Konformation der Hauptkette ist entropisch gegenüber einem entsprechenden Knäuel benachteiligt, weshalb sie ,molekulare Federn‘ darstellen, die auf Änderung der repulsiven Wechselwirkung zwischen den Seitenketten reagieren. Dies wurde für den Wechsel zwischen gutem und schlechtem Lösungsmitteln untersucht. Ein zweites Konzept zur Änderung der Molekülform beruht auf der intramolekularen Phasentrennung (,Segmentbildung‘) miteinander unverträglicher Seitenketten in selektiven Lösungsmitteln, da die Hauptkette durch Ausbildung von Mikrophasen entlang des Moleküls ebenfalls aus ihrer gestreckten Form gebracht werden sollte. Die dritte Möglichkeit zur Änderung der Konformation ist die intramolekulare Vernetzung von Seitenketten, die ebenfalls zu verringerter Abstoßung und damit zur Verkürzung der Zylinder führen sollte. Eine weitere wichtige Untersuchung der Arbeit war der Übergang einer geknäuelten Hauptkette zu einer gestreckten Bürste als Funktion der Pfropfdichte. Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragestellungen wurden zylindrische Bürstenpolymere durch ,Grafting Trough‘ und ,Grafting Onto‘ synthetisiert (PS bzw. PI/PS und PnBMA/PMAA mit Kern/Schale- und ,Segment‘-Architektur) und systematisch Pfropfdichte, Vernetzungsgrad (Vernetzung durch gamma-Bestrahlung) und Lösungsbedingungen verändert. Die Möglichkeit gezielter Ansteuerung der Konformationsänderung durch Vernetzung konnte nach polymeranaloger Modifikation von PI/PS-Bürstenpolymeren durch Photovernetzung und vernetzende Komplexierung erfolgreich bestätigt werden. Zur Untersuchung der Probenreihen wurden AFM, Licht- und Neutronenstreuung herangezogen. Die Analysen bestätigten konsistent die Änderung von Steifigkeit, Zylinderquerschnitt und Streckung der Hauptkette durch Variation von Pfropfdichte, Vernetzung und Lösungsmittelqualität. Für die Änderung der Pfropfdichte gehorchen die Parameter dabei Potenzgesetzen.

Synthesis and characterization of temperature- and light-responsive polymers and block copolymers

In summary, thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with various amounts of different photoswitchable side groups, i. e. azobenzene, salicylideneaniline and fulgimide were successfully prepared. As such, in a first step three different chromophores with an amine functionality were synthesized. The synthesis of the stimuli-responsive materials was based on the RAFT polymerization of activated ester acrylates followed by a polymer analogous reaction with different amines. The procedure has been designed to allow the synthesis of well-defined materials with functional groups. All copolymers prepared in this way showed a LCST in aqueous solution. The LCST was in general decreased by increasing the amount of hydrophobic dye incorporated into the thermoresponsive polymer. However, in the case of the fulgimide, the LCST was hardly affected by the chromophore. For azobenzene containing PNIPAM polymers and analogues, higher LCST values were measured after irradiation of the polymer sample solutions with UV-light (Delta LCSTmax = 7.3°C). A reversible light-induced solubility change within a certain temperature range was possible. In contrast to this, irradiated samples of salicylideneaniline containing thermoresponsive copolymers showed an irreversible increase in the LCST (Delta LCSTmax = 13.0°C). Fulgimide chromophores did not influence the LCST of PNIPAM based copolymers after UV-light exposure.rnSimilar to the thermoresponsive polyacrylamides with azobenzene side groups, poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate) [P(OEGMA)] polymers with azobenzene end groups showed a LCST shift upon UV-irradiation. These polymers were synthesized by RAFT polymerization using a functional chain transfer agent (CTA). For this, PFP-CTA was used as a RAFT-agent for end group functionalization of (thermoresponsive) polymers. In contrast to the statistically arranged copolymers with azobenzene side groups, P(OEGMA) polymers with terminal azobenzene showed a linear increase of the LCST shifts with increasing amount of chromophore (Delta LCSTmax = 4.3°C). Noteworthy, the chemical nature of the end group exhibited a strong influence on the LCST in the case of short thermoresponsive P(OEGMA) polymers.rnThe investigation on temperature- and lightresponsive polymers was transferred onto block copolymers capable to self-assemble into polymeric micelles. Therefore, PEO-b-PNIPAM block copolymers with azobenzene moieties were synthesized successfully. These polymers showed a “smart” behavior in aqueous solution, as the reversible formation and disruption of the micelles could either be controlled by temperature or using light as a stimulus. The usefulness of these materials was demonstrated by encapsulation of a hydrophobic dye in the core of the micelle. Such materials might have a great potential as a model system for several technical or biological applications.rnFinally, double thermoresponsive block copolymers forming micellar structures in a certain temperature range with functional end groups could successfully be synthesized. These “smart materials” based on POEGMA-b-PNIPMAM have been demonstrated to be very promising for a temperature selective immobilization on a protein surface. This might be a suitable concept for further biological applications.rnConcluding, different thermoresponsive copolymers and block copolymers with lightresponsive moieties arranged along the backbone or located at the chain ends were successfully prepared and investigated. By controlling the nature of functional groups and their respective incorporation ratios, the LCST could be dialed in precisely. Further, the LCST of the polymers could be triggered by light. A light-controlled disruption of micellar structures could be shown for functional block copolymers. The importance of end groups of thermoresponsive polymers was demonstrated by a temperature-controlled protein-polymer binding of a terminal biotin-functionalized double thermoresponsive polymer. The synthetic approaches and the material properties presented here should be promising for further research and applications beyond this dissertation.rn

Liquid crystalline elastomers as stimuli-responsive microactuators

Liquid crystalline elastomers (LCEs) are known to perform a reversible change of shape upon the phase transition from the semi-ordered liquid crystalline state to the chaotic isotropic state. This unique behavior of these “artificial muscles” arises from the self-organizing properties of liquid crystals (mesogens) in combination with the entropy-elasticity of the slightly crosslinked elastomer network. In this work, micrometer-sized LCE actuators are fabricated in a microfluidic setup. The microtubular shear flow provides for a uniform orientation of the mesogens during the crosslinking, a perquisite for obtaining actuating LCE samples. The scope of this work was to design different actuator geometries and to broaden the applicability of the microfluidic device for different types of liquid crystalline mesogens, ranging from side-chain to main-chain systems, as well as monomer and polymer precursors. For example, the thiol-ene “click” mechanism was used for the polymerization and crosslinking of main-chain LCE actuators. The main focus was, however, placed on acrylate monomers and polymers with LC side chains. A LC polymer precursor, comprising mesogenic and crosslinkable side-chains was synthesized. Used in combination with an LC monomer, the polymeric crosslinker promoted a stable LC phase, which allowed the mixture to be isothermally handled in the microfluidic reactor. If processed without the additional LC components, the polymer precursor yielded actuating fibers. A suitable co-flowing continuous phase facilitates the formation of a liquid jet and lowers the tendency for drop formation. By modification of the microfluidic device, it was further possible to prepare core-shell particles, comprised of an LCE shell and filled with an isotropic liquid. In analogy to the heart, a hollow muscle, the elastomer shell expels the inner liquid core upon its contraction. The feasibility of the core-shell particles as micropumps was demonstrated. In general, the synthesized LCE microactuators may be utilized as active components in micromechanical and lab-on-chip systems.

From anionic polymerization in continuous flow to macromolecular architectures and stimuli-responsive surfaces

The thesis can be divided in four parts and summarized as follows:(i) The investigation and development of a continuous flow synthesis procedure affording end-functional polymers by anionic polymerization and subsequent termination in one reaction step and on a multigram scale was carried out. Furthermore, the implementation of not only a single hydroxyl but multiple orthogonal functionalities at the chain terminus was achieved by utilizing individually designed, functional epoxide-based end-capping reagents.(ii) In an additional step, the respective polymers were used as macroinitiators to prepare in-chain functionalized block copolymers and star polymers bearing intriguing novel structural and material properties. Thus, the second part of this thesis presents the utilization of end-functional polymers as precursors for the synthesis of amphiphilic complex and in some cases unprecedented macromolecular architectures, such as miktoarm star polymers based on poly(vinyl pyridine), poly(vinyl ferrocene) and PEO.(iii) Based on these structures, the third part of this thesis represents a detailed investigation of the preparation of stimuli-responsive ultrathin polymer films, using amphiphilic junction point-reactive block copolymers. The single functionality at the block interface can be employed as anchor group for the covalent attachment on surfaces. Furthermore, the change of surface properties was studied by applying different external stimuli.(iv) An additional topic related to the oxyanionic polymerizations carried out in the context of this thesis was the investigation of viscoelastic properties of different hyperbranched polyethers, inspired by the recent and intense research activities in the field of biomedical applications of multi-functional hyperbranched materials.

Stimuli-responsive materials for self-healing in corrosion protection

The corrosion of metallic materials is a crucial issue on an economical and ecological scale. Corrosion protection becomes then necessarily needed. The main focus of the thesis is to develop stimuli-responsive nanocontainers for self-healing in corrosion protection. A nanocontainer is efficient if distinct payloads can be selectively released via different stimuli because unwanted and unspecific release can be avoided. For anti-corrosion, the wanted nanocontainer is the one able to release its self-healing agents or corrosion inhibitors upon change of pH- or/and redox-potential due to the variation of these two signals at the corroded sites. Conducting polymers such as polyaniline (PANI) were chosen for building the shell of capsules due to their important characteristics of being both pH- and redox responsive.

Synthesis and application of stimuli responsive tunable systems based on physical interactions

Novel single step synthetic procedure for hydrophobically modified alkali soluble latexes (HASE) via a miniemulsion-analogous method is presented. This facile method simplifies the copolymerization of the monomers with basically “opposite” character in terms of their hydrophilic/hydrophobic nature, which represent one of the main challenges in water based systems. Considered systems do not represent classical miniemulsions due to a high content of water soluble monomers. However, the polymerization mechanism was found to be rather similar to miniemulsion polymerization process.rnThe influence of the different factors on the system stability has been investigated. The copolymerization behavior studies typically showed strong composition drifts during copolymerization. It was found that the copolymer composition drift can be suppressed via changing the initial monomer ratio.rnThe neutralization behavior of the obtained HASE systems was investigated via potentiometric titration. The rheological behavior of the obtained systems as a function of the different parameters, such as pH, composition (ultrahydrophobe content) and additive type and content has also been investigated.rnDetailed investigation of the storage and loss moduli, damping factor and the crossover frequencies of the samples showed that at the initial stages of the neutralization the systems show microgel-like behavior.rnThe dependence of the rheological properties on the content and the type of the ultrahydrophobe showed that the tuning of the mechanical properties can be easily achieved via minor (few percent) but significant changes in the content of the latter. Besides, changing the hydrophobicity of the ultrahydrophobe via increasing the carbon chain length represents another simple method for achieving the same results.rnThe influence of amphiphilic additives (especially alcohols) on the rheological behavior of the obtained systems has been studied. An analogy was made between micellation of surfactants and the formation of hydrophobic domains between hydrophobic groups of the polymer side chain.rnDilution induced viscosity reduction was investigated in different systems, without or with different amounts or types of the amphiphilic additive. Possibility of the controlled response to dilution was explored. It was concluded that the sensitivity towards dilution can be reduced, and in extreme cases even the increase of the dynamic modulus can be observed, which is of high importance for the setting behavior of the adhesive material.rnIn the last part of this work, the adhesive behavior of the obtained HASE systems was investigated on different substrates (polypropylene and glass) for the standard labeling paper. Wet tack and setting behavior was studied and the trends for possible applications have been evaluated.rnThe novel synthetic procedure, investigation of rheological properties and the possibility of the tuning via additives, investigated in this work create a firm background for the development of the HASE based adhesives as well as rheology modifiers with vast variety of possible applications due to ease of tuning the mechanical and rheological properties of the systems.