Duktile Gesteinsdeformation durch zeitabhängige Kataklase

In Gesteinen, die bei schwach- bis mittelgradiger Metamorphose deformiert wurden, sind Mikrostrukturen, wie z.B. undulöse Auslöschung, Subkörner und kristallographische Regelungen, typisch. Sie werden i.a. als das Resultat eines kristallplastischen Deformationsprozesses interpretiert. Das häufige Auftreten dieser Strukturen führte zu der Annahme, daß kristallplastische Deformationsprozesse zu den dominierenden duktilen Deformationsmechanismen während der Erdkrustendeformation gehören.Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit Experimenten, bei denen die zeitabhängige kata-klastische Deformation polykristalliner, kompaktierter Aggregatproben des sehr gut löslichen, elastisch/spröden Salzes Natriumchlorat (NaClO3) untersucht wurde. Dieses Salz wurde als Analogmaterial gesteinsbildender Minerale wie Quarz und Feldspat ausgewählt. Es wurde nun untersucht, ob und in welcher Weise spröde Deformationsmechanismen in Anwesenheit von Wasser scheinbar kristall-plastische Mikrostrukturen hervorrufen können.Aus den Versuchen ergibt sich nun die Folgerung, daß scheinbar kristallplastisch erzeugte Mikrostrukturen wie Subkörner auch durch spröde zeitunabhängige Risse und subkritische (langsame) Kataklase entstehen können. Diese Erkenntnisse sind wichtig für das rheologische Verhalten der Erdkruste und somit auch für Modellierungen der Erdkrustendeformation. Ihre Betrachtung und Übertragung auf die Deformationsstrukturen der natürlich deformierten kontinentalen, oberkrustalen Gesteine der Erde würde die Interpretation der Mikrostrukturen in diesen Bereichen stark ändern. Dies hätte eine wesentliche Änderung auf den Verlauf der Gesteinsfestigkeitskurven in den Spannungsprofilen der Erdoberkruste zur Folge.

Geochronological and structural evolution of the western and central Kaoko Belt in NW Namibia

This thesis focusses on the tectonic evolution and geochronology of part of the Kaoko orogen, which is part of a network of Pan-African orogenic belts in NW Namibia. By combining geochemical, isotopic and structural analysis, the aim was to gain more information about how and when the Kaoko Belt formed. The first chapter gives a general overview of the studied area and the second one describes the basis of the Electron Probe Microanalysis dating method. The reworking of Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic basement during the Pan-African orogeny as part of the assembly of West Gondwana is discussed in Chapter 3. In the study area, high-grade rocks occupy a large area, and the belt is marked by several large-scale structural discontinuities. The two major discontinuities, the Sesfontein Thrust (ST) and the Puros Shear Zone (PSZ), subdivide the orogen into three tectonic units: the Eastern Kaoko Zone (EKZ), the Central Kaoko Zone (CKZ) and the Western Kaoko Zone (WKZ). An important lineament, the Village Mylonite Zone (VMZ), has been identified in the WKZ. Since plutonic rocks play an important role in understanding the evolution of a mountain belt, zircons from granitoid gneisses were dated by conventional U-Pb, SHRIMP and Pb-Pb techniques to identify different age provinces. Four different age provinces were recognized within the Central and Western part of the belt, which occur in different structural positions. The VMZ seems to mark the limit between Pan-African granitic rocks east of the lineament and Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic basement to the west. In Chapter 4 the tectonic processes are discussed that led to the Neoproterozoic architecture of the orogen. The data suggest that the Kaoko Belt experienced three main phases of deformation, D1-D3, during the Pan-African orogeny. Early structures in the central part of the study area indicate that the initial stage of collision was governed by underthrusting of the medium-grade Central Kaoko zone below the high-grade Western Kaoko zone, resulting in the development of an inverted metamorphic gradient. The early structures were overprinted by a second phase D2, which was associated with the development of the PSZ and extensive partial melting and intrusion of ~550 Ma granitic bodies in the high-grade WKZ. Transcurrent deformation continued during cooling of the entire belt, giving rise to the localized low-temperature VMZ that separates a segment of elevated Mesoproterozoic basement from the rest of the Western zone in which only Pan-African ages have so far been observed. The data suggest that the boundary between the Western and Central Kaoko zones represents a modified thrust zone, controlling the tectonic evolution of the Kaoko belt. The geodynamic evolution and the processes that generated this belt system are discussed in Chapter 5. Nd mean crustal residence ages of granitoid rocks permit subdivision of the belt into four provinces. Province I is characterised by mean crustal residence ages <1.7 Ga and is restricted to the Neoproterozoic granitoids. A wide range of initial Sr isotopic values (87Sr/86Sri = 0.7075 to 0.7225) suggests heterogeneous sources for these granitoids. The second province consists of Mesoproterozoic (1516-1448 Ma) and late Palaeo-proterozoic (1776-1701 Ma) rocks and is probably related to the Eburnian cycle with Nd model ages of 1.8-2.2 Ga. The eNd i values of these granitoids are around zero and suggest a predominantly juvenile source. Late Archaean and middle Palaeoproterozoic rocks with model ages of 2.5 to 2.8 Ga make up Province III in the central part of the belt and are distinct from two early Proterozoic samples taken near the PSZ which show even older TDM ages of ~3.3 Ga (Province IV). There is no clear geological evidence for the involvement of oceanic lithosphere in the formation of the Kaoko-Dom Feliciano orogen. Chapter 6 presents the results of isotopic analyses of garnet porphyroblasts from high-grade meta-igneous and metasedimentary rocks of the sillimanite-K-feldspar zone. Minimum P-T conditions for peak metamorphism were calculated at 731±10 °C at 6.7±1.2 kbar, substantially lower than those previously reported. A Sm-Nd garnet-whole rock errorchron obtained on a single meta-igneous rock yielded an unexpectedly old age of 692±13 Ma, which is interpreted as an inherited metamorphic age reflecting an early Pan-African granulite-facies event. The dated garnets survived a younger high-grade metamorphism that occurred between ca. 570 and 520 Ma and apparently maintained their old Sm-Nd isotopic systematics, implying that the closure temperature for garnet in this sample was higher than 730 °C. The metamorphic peak of the younger event was dated by electronmicroprobe on monazite at 567±5 Ma. From a regional viewpoint, it is possible that these granulites of igneous origin may be unrelated to the early Pan-African metamorphic evolution of the Kaoko Belt and may represent a previously unrecognised exotic terrane.

Foliation boudinage

In this thesis foliation boudinage and related structures have been studied based on field observations and numerical modeling. Foliation boudinage occurs in foliated rocks independent of lithology contrast. The developing structures are called ‘Foliation boudinage structures (FBSs)’ and show evidence for both ductile and brittle deformation. They are recognized in rocks by perturbations in monotonous foliation adjacent to a central discontinuity, mostly filled with vein material. Foliation boudinage structures have been studied in the Çine Massif in SW-Turkey and the Furka Pass-Urseren Zone in central Switzerland. Four common types have been distinguished in the field, named after vein geometries in their boudin necks in sections normal to the boudin axis: lozenge-, crescent-, X- and double crescent- type FBSs. Lozengetype FBSs are symmetric and characterized by lozenge-shaped veins in their boudin neck with two cusps facing opposite sides. A symmetrical pair of flanking folds occurs on the two sides of the vein. Crescent-type FBSs are asymmetric with a single smoothly curved vein in the boudin neck, with vein contacts facing to one side. X- and double crescent- type FBSs are asymmetric. The geometry of the neck veins resembles that of cuspate-lobate structures. The geometry of flanking structures is related to the shape of the veins. The veins are mostly filled with massive quartz in large single crystals, commonly associated with tourmaline, feldspar and biotite and in some cases with chlorite. The dominance of large facetted single quartz crystals and spherulitic chlorite in the veins suggest that the minerals grew into open fluidfilled space. FLAC experiments show that fracture propagation during ductile deformation strongly influences the geometry of developing veins. The cusps of the veins are better developed in the case of propagating fractures. The shape of the boudin neck veins in foliation boudinage depends on the initial orientation and shape of the fracture, the propagation behaviour of the fracture, the geometry of bulk flow, and the stage at which mineral filling takes place. A two dimensional discrete element model was used to study the progressive development of foliation boudinage structures and the behavior of visco-elastic material deformed under pure shear conditions. Discrete elements are defined by particles that are connected by visco-elastic springs. Springs can break. A number of simulations was Abstract vii performed to investigate the effect of material properties (Young’s modulus, viscosity and breaking strength) and anisotropy on the developing structures. The models show the development of boudinage in single layers, multilayers and in anisotropic materials with random mica distribution. During progressive deformation different types of fractures develop from mode I, mode II to the combination of both. Voids develop along extension fractures, at intersections of conjugate shear fractures and in small pull-apart structures along shear fractures. These patterns look similar to the natural examples. Fractures are more localized in the models where the elastic constants are low and the competence contrast is high between the layers. They propagate through layers where the constants are high and the competence contrast is relatively low. Flow localize around these fractures and voids. The patterns similar to symmetric boudinage structures and extensional neck veins (e.g. lozenge type) more commonly develop in the models with lower elastic constants and anisotropy. The patterns similar to asymmetric foliation boudinage structures (e.g. X-type) develop associated with shear fractures in the models where elastic constants and anisotropy of the materials are relatively high. In these models boudin neck veins form commonly at pull-aparts along the shear fractures and at the intersection of fractures.

Charakterisierung antiker Keramik und ihrer Herstellungstechniken mit mineralogischen Methoden am Beispiel Mayener Gebrauchskeramik

Mehr als hundert Jahre archäologischer Forschung haben gezeigt, dass in Mayen in römischer und mittelalterlicher Zeit eines der wichtigsten europäischen Produktionszentren für die Herstellung qualitätsvoller Gebrauchskeramik bestand. Im Rahmen dieser Studie wurden vier Befundkomplexe aus Töpfereisiedlungen vom 4. bis in das 14. Jahrhundert untersucht. Genauer handelt es sich um Keramik aus zwei spätantiken Brennanlagen des 4. Jahrhunderts im Bereich der Flur „Auf der Eich“ an den Straßen „Am Sonnenhang“ und „Frankenstraße“. Weiterhin konnte Material aus zwei Töpferofenfüllungen des 5. bis 9. Jahrhunderts analysiert werden, das 1975 auf dem Grundstück 55 an der „Siegfriedstraße“ in Brennanlagen entdeckt wurde. Hinzu kam Brenngut aus elf Töpferöfen des späten 8. bis 14. Jahrhunderts, welches in den so genannten „Burggärten“ der Genovevaburg von Mayen in den Jahren 1986/87 durch die archäologische Denkmalpflege in Koblenz geborgen wurde. Die mineralogischen Untersuchungen zur Charakterisierung der „Mayener Keramik“ wurden systematisch an den Keramikmaterialien aus diesen Fundstellen durchgeführt. Mittelalterliche Keramik aus Bornheim-Walberberg, Brühl-Eckdorf, Höhr-Grenzhausen, Langerwehe, Frechen, Brühl-Pingsdorf, Paffrath, Raeren, Ratingen-Breitscheid, Siegburg-Seehofstraße, Siegburg-Scherbenhügel, Fredelsloh und Brühl-Badorf konnte für diese Arbeit als Referenzmaterialien ebenfalls untersucht werden. Provenienzanalysen wurden an Keramikproben aus 27 Fundorten, die makroskopisch nach Mayener Ware aussehen, mit mineralogischen Methoden durchgeführt, um sie der Fundregion Mayen eindeutig zuordnen zu können.rnPhasenanalyse, chemische Analyse und thermische Analyse wurden an Keramik sowie Ton durchgeführt. Die Phasenanalyse wurde zur Bestimmung der mineralischen Zusammensetzung von Grundmasse und Magerungsmittel (Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD), Polarisationsmikroskop, Mikro-Raman-Spektroskopie) verwendet. Die chemische Zusammensetzung wurde durch Röntgenfluoreszenzanalyse (RFA) ermittelt. Elektronenstrahlmikroanalyse (ESMA) und Laser-Massenspektrometrie mit induktiv gekoppeltem Plasma (LA-ICP-MS) wurden bei den Proben, bei denen weniger als 2g Material zur Verfügung standen, eingesetzt. Brennexperimente wurden am originalen Rohstoff der Keramik aus den „Burggärten“ der Genovevaburg durchgeführt. Gebrannter Ton wurde durch Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD), Infrarotspektroskopie (IR) und Differential-Thermoanalyse (DTA) analysiert. rnAnhand der Messergebnisse lässt sich die Mayener Keramik aus den vier Fundplätzen in zwei Typen zusammenzufassen: der mit Feldspat-reichem Sand gemagerte römische Typ und der mit Quarz-reichem Sand gemagerte mittelalterliche Typ. Die Änderung des Magerungsmittels von Feldspat- zu Quarzsand weist eine technische Entwicklung zu höheren Brenntemperaturen von der Römerzeit bis in das Mittelalter nach. Nach der Untersuchung und dem Vergleich mit den Referenzkeramikgruppen ist festzustellen, dass durch multivariate Statistikanalysen der chemischen Komponenten die Charakterisierung der Keramik und eine Differenzierung zwischen den Keramikgruppen gelingt. Diese Erkenntnisse bildeten die Basis für Provenienzanalysen. 16 Fundorte können durch Provenienzanalyse sicher als Exportregionen der Mayener Ware festgestellt werden. Gemäß den Brennexperimenten lassen sich die chemischen Reaktionen während des Brandprozesses nachvollziehen. Zwei Methoden wurden mittels Röntgendiffraktometrie (XRD) und Differential-Thermoanalyse (DTA) zur Bestimmung der Brenntemperaturen der Keramik modelliert. Die Töpferöfen der „Burggärten“ können nach der Brenntemperatur in zwei Typen zusammengefasst werden: solche mit einer Brenntemperatur unter 1050°C und solche mit einer Brenntemperatur über 1050°C.rn

Internal characteristics, chemical compounds and spectroscopy of sapphire as single crystals

In this study more than 450 natural sapphire samples (most of basaltic type) collected from 19 different areas were examined. They are from Dak Nong, Dak Lak, Quy Chau, two unknown sources from the north (Vietnam); Bo Ploi, Khao Ploi Waen (Thailand); Ban Huay Sai (Laos); Australia; Shandong (China); Andapa, Antsirabe, Nosibe (Madagascar); Ballapana (Sri Lanka); Brazil; Russia; Colombia; Tansania and Malawi. rnThe samples were studied on internal characteristics, chemical compositions, Raman-, luminescence-, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR)-, and ultraviolet-visible-near infrared (UV-Vis-NIR)- spectroscopy. The internal features of these sapphire samples were observed and identified by gemological microscope, con focal micro Raman and FTIR spectroscopy. The major and minor elements of the samples were determined by electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and the trace elements by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). rnThe structural spectra of sapphire were investigated by con focal Raman spectroscopy. The FTIR spectroscopy was used to study the vibration modes of OH-groups and also to determine hydrous mineral inclusions in sapphire. The UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectroscopy was used to analyze the cause of sapphire color. rnNatural sapphires contain many types of mineral inclusions. Typically, they are iron-containing inclusions like goethite, ilmenite, hematite, magnetite or silicate minerals commonly feldspar, and often observed in sapphires from Asia countries, like Dak Nong, Dak Lak in the south of Vietnam, Ban Huay Sai (Laos), Khao Ploi Waen and Bo Ploi (Thailand) or Shandong (China). Meanwhile, CO2-diaspore inclusions are normally found in sapphires from Tansania, Colombia, or the north of Vietnam like Quy Chau. rnIron is the most dominant element in sapphire, up to 1.95 wt.% Fe2O3 measured by EPMA and it affects spectral characteristics of sapphire.rnThe Raman spectra of sapphire contain seven peaks (2A1g + 5Eg). Two peaks at about 418.3 cm-1 and 577.7 cm-1 are influenced by high iron content. These two peaks shift towards smaller wavenumbers corresponding to increasing iron content. This shift is showed by two equations y(418.3)=418.29-0.53x andy(577.7)=577.96-0.75x, in which y is peak position (cm-1) and x is Fe2O3 content (wt.%). By exploiting two these equations one can estimate the Fe2O3 contents of sapphire or corundum by identifying the respective Raman peak positions. Determining the Fe2O3 content in sapphire can help to distinguish sapphires from different origins, e.g. magmatic and metamorphic sapphire. rnThe luminescence of sapphire is characterized by two R-lines: R1 at about 694 nm and R2 at about 692 nm. This characteristic is also influenced by high iron content. The peak positions of two R-lines shift towards to smaller wavelengths corresponding to increasing of iron content. This correlation is showed by two equations y(R_2 )=692.86-0.049x and y(R_1 )=694.29-0.047x, in which y is peak position (nm) of respective R-lines and x is Fe2O3 content (wt.%). Two these equations can be applied to estimate the Fe2O3 content of sapphire and help to separate sapphires from different origins. The luminescence is also applied for determination of the remnant pressure or stress around inclusions in Cr3+-containing corundum by calibrating a 0-pressure position in experimental techniques.rnThe infrared spectra show the presence of vibrations originating from OH-groups and hydrous mineral inclusions in the range of 2500-4000 cm-1. Iron has also an effect upon the main and strongest peak at about 3310 cm-1. The 3310 cm-1 peak is shifted to higher wavenumber when iron content increases. This relationship is expressed by the equation y(3310)=0.92x+3309.17, in which y is peak position of the 3310 cm-1 and x is Fe2O3 content (wt.%). Similar to the obtained results in Raman and luminescence spectra, this expression can be used to estimate the Fe2O3 content and separate sapphires from different origins. rnThe UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra point out the strong and sharp peaks at about 377, 387, and 450 nm related to dispersed Fe3+, a broad band around 557 and 600 nm related to intervalence charge transfer (IVCT) Fe2+/Ti4+, and a broader band around 863 nm related to IVCT of Fe2+/Fe3+. rnGenerally, sapphires from different localities were completely investigated on internal features, chemical compounds, and solid spectral characteristics. The results in each part contribute for identifying the iron content and separate sapphires from different localities order origins. rn