Herstellung, Struktur und Polymerisation neuer Cyclodextrin-komplexierter (Meth)acrylate und radikalische Polymerisation neuer Monomere zur Steuerung rheologischer Eigenschaften

Zusammenfassung In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden Polymerisationseigenschaften hydrophober Monomere untersucht, die mittels methyliertem b-Cyclodextrin (me-b-CD) als Wirt/Gast-Komplexe homogen in die wäßrige Phase überführt wurden. Mit diesem Verfahren steht eine neue Variante der Polymerisation hydrophober Monomere in Wasser zur Verfügung.Die Charakterisierung der Monomer/CD-Komplexe erfolgte mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse und 1H-NMR-Spektroskopie: steigende Größe der Gast-Komponente erhöht die Wechselwirkungen zum CD. Zur Untersuchung der Polymerisationsreaktion wurden Copolymerisationsparameter von Komplexen und Übertragungskonstanten von Mercaptoverbindungen bei Polymerisationen von Komplexen ermittelt. In Abhängigkeit der Größe der Gastkomponente und ihrer Wasserlöslichkeit resultieren unterschiedliche Reaktivitäten relativ zu Polymerisationen unkomplexierter Reaktanden in organisch-wäßriger Lösung. Außerdem wurden Copolymerisationen zwischen hydrophoben, me-b-CD-komplexierten Monomeren und wasserlöslichen Monomeren untersucht wie z.B. N-Isopropylacrylamid oder Natrium-4-(acrylamido)phenyldiazosulfonat, dessen Copolymerisation mit Styrol bislang nicht möglich war. Eine weitere Aufgabe war die Herstellung wasserstoffbrückenbindender Polymere. Hierzu wurden assoziationsfähige Monomere hergestellt und mit Methylmethacrylat copolymerisiert. Lösungen der Copolymere wurden rheologisch untersucht. Die Lösungen besitzen hohe Nullscherviskositäten bei 20°C und sind strukturviskos. Die Untersuchung der Temperaturabhängigkeit der Nullscherviskositäten ergab insbesondere bei der Lösung von Poly(N-(methacryl-2-ethyl)-N'-(3-amino-(1,2,4-triazol-2-yl))harnstoff-co-methylmethacrylat) bei niedrigen Temperaturen eine hohe Fließaktivierungsenergie, die zu höheren Temperaturen sank. Die komplexe Viskosität dieser Lösung fiel mit zunehmender Temperatur zunächst ab, stieg dann wieder an und sank erneut. Mittels DSC-Messungen konnten Phasenübergänge für dieses Fließverhalten verantwortlich gemacht werden. Außerdem kann Poly(N-(methacryl-2-ethyl)-N'-(3-amino-(1,2,4-triazol-2-yl))harnstoff-co-methylmethacrylat) thermisch vernetzen.

Liquid crystalline oligofluorenes and their derivatives

Homo-oligofluorenes (OFn), polyfluorenes (PF2/6) and oligofluorenes with one fluorenenone group in the center (OFnK) were synthesized. They were used as model compounds to understand of the structure-property relationships of polyfluorenes and the origin of the green emission in the photoluminescence (after photooxidation of the PFs) and the electroluminescence (EL) spectra. The electronic, electrochemical properties, thermal behavior, supramolecular self-assembly, and photophysical properties of OFn, PF2/6 and OFnK were investigated. Oligofluorenes with 2-ethylhexyl side chain (OF2-OF7) from the dimer up to the heptamer were prepared by a series of stepwise transition metal mediated Suzuki and Yamamoto coupling reactions. Polyfluorene was synthesized by Yamamoto coupling of 2,7-dibromo-9,9-bis(2-ethylhexyl)fluorene. Oligofluorenes with one fluorenone group in the center (OF3K, OF5K, OF7K) were prepared by Suzuki coupling between the monoboronic fluorenyl monomer, dimer, trimer and 2, 7-dibromofluorenone. The electrochemical and electronic properties of homo-oligofluorenes (OFn) were systematically studied by several combined techniques such as cyclic voltammetry, differential pulse voltammetry, UV-vis absorption spectroscopy, steady and time-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy. It was found that the oligofluorenes behave like classical conjugated oligomers, i.e., with the increase of the chain-length, the corresponding oxidation potential, the absorption and emission maximum, ionization potential, electron affinity, band gap and the photoluminescence lifetime displayed a very good linear relation with the reciprocal number of the fluorene units (1/n). The extrapolation of these linear relations to infinite chain length predicted the electrochemical and electronic properties of the corresponding polyfluorenes. The thermal behavior, single-crystal structure and supramolecular packing, alignment properties, and molecular dynamics of the homo-oligofluorenes (OFn) up to the polymer were studied using techniques such as TGA, DSC, WAXS, POM and DS. The OFn from tetramer to heptamer show a smectic liquid crystalline phase with clearly defined isotropization temperature. The oligomers do show a glass transition which exhibits n-1 dependence and allows extrapolation to a hypothetical glass transition of the polymer at around 64 °C. A smectic packing and helix-like conformation for the oligofluorenes from tetramer to heptamer was supported by WAXS experiments, simulation, and single-crystal structure of some oligofluorene derivatives. Oligofluorenes were aligned more easily than the corresponding polymer, and the alignability increased with the molecular length from tetramer to heptamer. The molecular dynamics in a series of oligofluorenes up to the polymer was studied using dielectric spectroscopy. The photophysical properties of OFn and PF2/6 were investigated by the steady-state spectra (UV-vis absorption and fluorescence spectra) and time-resolved fluorescence spectra both in solution and thin film. The time-resolved fluorescence spectra of the oligofluorenes were measured by streak camera and gate detection technique. The lifetime of the oligofluorenes decreased with the extension of the chain-length. No green emission was observed in CW, prompt and delayed fluorescence for oligofluorenes in m-THF and film at RT and 77K. Phosphorescence was observed for oligofluorenes in frozen dilute m-THF solution at 77K and its lifetime increased with length of oligofluorenes. A linear relation was obtained for triplet energy and singlet energy as a function of the reciprocal degree of polymerization, and the singlet-triplet energy gap (S1-T1) was found to decrease with the increase of degree of polymerization. Oligofluorenes with one fluorenone unit at the center were used as model compounds to understand the origin of the low-energy (“green”) emission band in the photoluminescence and electroluminescence spectra of polyfluorenes. Their electrochemical properties were investigated by CV, and the ionization potential (Ip) and electron affinity (Ea) were calculated from the onset of oxidation and reduction of OFnK. The photophysical properties of OFnK were studied in dilute solution and thin film by steady-state spectra and time-resolved fluorescence spectra. A strong green emission accompanied with a weak blue emission were obtained in solution and only green emission was observed on film. The strong green emission of OFnK suggested that rapid energy transfer takes place from higher energy sites (fluorene segments) to lower energy sites (fluorenone unit) prior to the radiative decay of the excited species. The fluorescence spectra of OFnK also showed solvatochromism. Monoexponential decay behaviour was observed by time-resolved fluorescence measurements. In addition, the site-selective excitation and concentration dependence of the fluorescence spectra were investigated. The ratio of green and blue emission band intensities increases with the increase of the concentration. The observed strong concentration dependence of the green emission band in solution suggests that increased interchain interactions among the fluorenone-containing oligofluorene chain enhanced the emission from the fluorenone defects at higher concentration. On the other hand, the mono-exponential decay behaviour and power dependence were not influenced significantly by the concentration. We have ruled out the possibility that the green emission band originates from aggregates or excimer formation. Energy transfer was further investigated using a model system of a polyfluorene doped by OFnK. Förster-type energy transfer took place from PF2/6 to OFnK, and the energy transfer efficiency increased with increasing of the concentration of OFnK. Efficient funneling of excitation energy from the high-energy fluorene segments to the low-energy fluorenone defects results from energy migration by hopping of excitations along a single polymer chain until they are trapped on the fluorenone defects on that chain or transferred onto neighbouring chains by Förster-type interchain energy transfer process. These results imply that the red-shifted emission in polyfluorenes can originate from (usually undesirable) keto groups at the bridging carbon atoms-especially if the samples have been subject to photo- or electro-oxidation or if fluorenone units are present due to an improper purification of the monomers prior to polymerization.

Tetraurea derivatives of calix[4]arenes and oligocalix[4]arenes, synthesis and self-assembly = Tetraharnstoff-Derivate von Calix[4 ]arenen und Oligocalix[4]arenen, Synthese und Selbstorganisierung

Wide rim tetraurea calix[4]arenes form hydrogen bonded dimeric capsules in apolar solvents in the presence of a suitable guest, which must be included in the cavity. The monomeric and dimeric form are never observed simultaneously under usual conditions. In general the combination of two different alkyl or aryl tetraurea derivatives results in the mixture of two homodimers and a heterodimer, however, only the heterodimeric species is observed in the 1:1 mixture of aryl and tosyl ureas. The (hetero)dimerization of oligourea calix[4]arenes (units) was used to construct larger structures via self-assembly of multiple calixarenes (building blocks) containing two (or more) covalently connected units. Among these self-assembled structures linear or branched polymers, cyclic oligomers and well-organized dendrimers were envisaged. The synthesis of the building blocks requires the preparation of calix[4]arene units possessing one (or more) functional group at the narrow or wide rim. Finally the oligourea units were covalently connected either directly or via suitable spacers within appropriate building blocks using amide bonds. Self-assembly properties of such building blocks were investigated.

N-Vinylamidderivate zur Synthese neuartiger Kern-Schale-Partikel und Hydrogele

N-Vinylamidderivate sind eine toxikologische unbedenkliche Monomerklasse. Mit diesen Monomeren wurden verschiedene technische Anwendungsgebiete im Bereich der Kern-Schale-Partikel und der fließfähigen und vernetzten Hydrogele untersucht. Kern-Schale-Partikel Für die Synthese von Kern-Schale-Partikeln wurden die N-Vinylamidderivate als Schalenpolymere auf kommerziellen Poly(styrol-stat.-butadien)-Kernpartikeln aufpolymerisiert. Mit Hilfe verschiedener Untersuchungsmethoden (DLS, SEM, FFF, Ultrazentrifuge) wurde die Kern-Schale-Strukturbildung und die Effizienz der Pfropfungsreaktion untersucht und eine erfolgreiche Synthese der Kern-Schale-Partikel belegt. Durch die gezielte Modifizierung des Schalenpolymers wurde ein kationisches, organisches Mikropartikelsystem entwickelt, charakterisiert und auf die Eignung als „Duales Flockungsmittel“ untersucht. Diese Versuche belegten die Eignung der modifizierten Kern-Schale-Partikel als „Duales Flockungsmittel“ und bieten eine Alternative zu kommerziell verwendeten Retentionsmitteln. Außerdem wurden die filmbildenden Eigenschaften der Poly(N﷓vinylformamid)-Kern-Schale-Dispersionen untersucht. Nach der Verfilmung der Dispersionen wurden transparente und harte Filme erhalten. Die Auswirkungen auf die mechanischen Eigenschaften der Filme wurden durch die Variation verschiedener Parameter eingehend studiert. Auf der Basis dieser Partikel wurden selbstvernetzende Dispersionssysteme entwickelt. Das P﷓(VFA)-Schalenpolymer wurde teilweise hydrolysiert und die generierten freien Aminogruppen des Poly(N-vinylamins) durch eine Michael-Addition mit einem divinylfunktionalisierten Acrylat (Tetraethylenglykoldiacrylat) vernetzt. Untersuchungen zur mechanischen Beständigkeit der Filme zeigten bei geringen Vernetzungsgraden eine deutliche Optimierung der maximalen Zugbelastungen. Die Untersuchungen belegten, dass die Verwendung des selbstvernetzenden Dispersionssystems als Dispersion für eine Polymerbeschichtung möglich ist. Hydrogele Die Synthese von fließfähigen und quervernetzten Hydrogelen erfolgte auf der Basis verschiedener N﷓Vinylamide. Mit Hilfe geeigneter Vernetzer wurden feste Hydrogelplatten synthetisiert und für die Auftrennung von DNA-Sequenzen mit Hilfe der Gelelektrophorese verwendet. Scharfe und gute Auftrennung der verschiedenen „DNA-Ladder Standards“ wurden durch die Variation des Vernetzeranteils, der Polymerzusammensetzung, der angelegten Spannung und der Verweilzeit in der Gelelektrophoresekammer mit P﷓(MNVA)-Hydrogelplatten erreicht. Fließfähige und quervernetzte Elektrolytgele auf Poly-(N-vinylamid)-Basis wurden in wartungsfreien pH﷓Elektroden eingesetzt. Die Eignung dieser Hydrogele wurden in Bezug auf die Anwendung eingehend charakterisiert. Elektroden befüllt mit Poly(N-vinylamid)-Gelen wurden in Dauerbelastungsexperimenten, direkt mit kommerziellen pH﷓Elektroden verglichen. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass die fließfähigen und quervernetzten Poly-(N-vinylamid)-Elektrolytgele in ihren Messeigenschaften gleichwertige bzw. bessere Potentialstabilitäten aufweisen als kommerzielle Referenzelektroden. Die Hydrogele auf Basis von Poly(N-vinylamidderivaten) boten für die beiden getesteten Anwendungen eine toxikologisch unbedenkliche Alternative zu Poly(acrylamid)-Gelen. In dieser Arbeit konnten die durchgeführten Untersuchungen belegen, dass N﷓Vinylamide eine attraktive Monomerklasse ist, die erfolgreich in vielen technischen Anwendungen einsetzbar ist.

Light-sensitive polymeric nanoparticles based on photo-cleavable chromophores

Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt in dem Design, der Synthese und der Charakterisierung neuartiger photosensitiver Mikrogele und Nanopartikel als potentielle Materialien für Beladungs- und Freisetzungsanwendungen. Zur Realisierung dieses Konzepts wurden verschiedene Ansätze untersucht.Es wurden neuartige niedermolekulare lichtspaltbare Vernetzermoleküle auf der Basis von o-Nitrobenzylderivaten synthetisiert, charakterisiert und zur Herstellung von photosensitiven PMMA und PHEMA Mikrogelen verwendet. Diese sind unter Bestrahlung in organischen Lösungsmitteln quellbar und zersetzbar. Durch die Einführung anionischer MAA Gruppen in solche PHEMA Mikrogele wurde dieses Konzept auf doppelt stimuliresponsive p(HEMA-co-MAA) Mikrogele erweitert. Hierbei wurde ein pH-abhängiges Quellbarkeitsprofil mit der lichtinduzierten Netzwerkspaltung in wässrigen Medien kombiniert. Diese duale Sensitivität zu zwei zueinander orthogonalen Reizen stellt ein vielversprechendes Konzept zur Kombination einer pH-abhängigen Beladung mit einer lichtinduzierten Freisetzung von funktionellen Substanzen dar. Desweiteren wurden PAAm Mikrogele entwickelt, welche sowohl eine Sensitivität gegenüber Enzymen als auch Licht aufweisen. Dieses Verhalten wurde durch die Verwendung von (meth-)acrylatfunktionalisierten Dextranen als polymere Vernetzungsmoleküle erreicht. Das entsprechende stimuliresponsive Profil basiert auf der enzymatischen Zersetzbarkeit der Polysaccharid-Hauptkette und der Anbindung der polymerisierbaren Vinyleinheiten an diese über photospaltbare Gruppen. Die gute Wasserlöslichkeit der Vernetzermoleküle stellt einen vielversprechenden Ansatz zur Beladung solcher Mikrogele mit funktionellen hydrophilen Substanzen bereits während der Partikelsynthese dar. Ein weiteres Konzept zur Beladung von Mikrogelen basiert auf der Verwendung von photolabilen Wirkstoff-Mikrogel Konjugaten. In einem ersten Schritt zur Realisierung solch eines Ansatzes wurde ein neuartiges Monomer entwickelt. Hierbei wurde Doxorubicin über eine lichtspaltbare Gruppe an eine polymerisierbare Methacrylatgruppe angebunden. Für die Freisetzung hydrophober Substanzen in wässrigen Medien wurden polymere Photolack-Nanopartikel entwickelt, welche sich unter Bestrahlung in Wasser zersetzen. Die lichtinduzierte Änderung der Hydrophobizität des Polymers ermöglichte die Freisetzung von Nilrot durch das Auflösen der partikulären Struktur. Ein interessanter Ansatz zur Verhinderung einer unkontrollierten Freisetzung funktioneller Substanzen aus Mikrogelen ist die Einführung einer stimuliresponsiven Schale. In diesem Kontext wurden Untersuchungen zur Bildung von nicht-stimulisensitiven Schalen um vorgefertigte Mikrogelkerne und zur Synthese von Hydrogelkernen in vorgefertigten polymeren Schalen (Nanokapseln) durchgeführt.

Photo-induced reversible assembly of colloidal polymer nanoparticles

Polymer nanoparticles functionalized on the surface with photo-responsive labels were synthesized. In a first synthetic step, polystyrene was copolymerized with the cross-linker divinylbenzene and poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate in a miniemulsion, to produce nano-sized spheres (~ 60 nm radius) with terminal hydroxyl groups, which were functionalized in a subsequent synthetic step with photo-responsive labels. For this purpose, two photo-active molecular structures were separately used: anthracene, which is well known to form covalently bonded dimers upon photo-excitation; and pyrene, which only forms short lived excited state dimers (excimers). Acid derivatives of these labels (9-anthracene carboxylic acid and 1-pyrene butyric acid) were bonded to the hydroxyl terminal groups of the nanoparticles through an esterification reaction, via the intermediate formation of the corresponding acid chloride.rnThe obtained labeled nanoparticles appeared to be highly hydrophobic structures. They formed lyophobic suspensions in water, which after analysis by dynamic light scattering (DLS) and ultramicroscopic particle tracking, appeared to equilibrate as a collection of singly dispersed nanoparticles, together with a few nanoparticle aggregates. The relative amount of aggregates decreased with increasing amounts of the surfactant sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), thus confirming that aggregation is an equilibrated state resulting from lyophobicity. The formation of such aggregates was corroborated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The photo-irradiation of the lyophobic aqueous suspensions of anthracene labeled nanoparticles (An-NP) resulted in the formation of higher aggregates, as evidenced by DLS and ultramicroscopy. The obtained state of aggregation could be reverted by sonication. The possibility to re-aggregate the system in subsequent photo-excitation and sonication cycles was established. Likewise, the photo-irradiation of lyophobic aqueous suspensions of pyrene-labeled nanoparticles (Py-NP) resulted in the formation of higher aggregates, as evidenced by DLS and ultramicroscopy. These appeared to remain aggregated due to hydrophobic interactions. This system could also be re-dispersed by sonication and re-aggregated in subsequent cycles of photo-excitation and sonication.

Synthesis of new xanthene derivatives

Xanthene dyes, including fluorescein, are a well-known class of fluorescent dyes, which have widespread applications in natural sciences. The synthesis of xanthene derivatives via acid catalyzed condensation of substituted phenols with phthalic anhydride, to afford the asymmetric derivatives, is well established. The high temperature, harsh reaction conditions and often low yields make this method less convenient. The synthesis of xanthene dyes by direct modification of the fluorophore moiety is a great option to circumvent the above mentioned drawbacks. rnOur new synthetic strategy for the preparation of novel asymmetric xanthene dyes via direct conversion of hydroxyl groups on 3'- and 6'-positions into leaving groups by mesylation is reported. It was discovered that 3',6'-di-mesylated fluorescein underwent a nucleophilic aromatic substitution with sulfur nucleophiles and afforded new asymmetric xanthene sulfides. rnThe impact of substituents possessing an electron-withdrawing character such as chlorines and bromines was investigated with the aim to improve the aromatic substitution on the electron-rich fluorescein structure. It was observed that the incorporation of these groups did not considerably affect the substitution reaction and the yields were comparable with the unsubstituted fluorescein. rnThis strategy provided novel fluorescent probes with the linker suitable to further modifications. The modifications of the linker delivered fluorescein derivatives that could be used as fluorescent labels in peptides, oligonucleotides and for cell imaging. rnThe hydroxyl group on the linker was modified to achieve potent bioconjugate functionality such as azide. The new fluorescent azides were obtained in a 4-step synthesis, namely 2-(6-(2-azidoethylthio)-3-oxo-3H-xanthen-9-yl)benzoic acid with an overall yield of 13%, its 2',7'-dichloro derivative with an overall yield of 10% and its 2',4',5'-tribromo derivative with an overall yield of 1%, respectively. rnAn asymmetric xanthene sulfide with an amino functionality placed on the aliphatic linker, namely 2-(6-((2-aminoethyl)thio)-3-oxo-3H-xanthen-9-yl)benzoic acid, was obtained in a 3-step synthesis with an overall yield of 33%. rnThe impact of the substitution with sulfur nucleophiles on the 6'-position of the xanthene moiety on its fluorescent characteristics was investigated. In comparison with fluorescein new asymmetric xanthene sulfides afforded lower extinction coefficients and fluorescent quantum yields. On the other hand, the substitution with a sulfur nucleophile significantly improved the photostability of xanthene dyes. It was shown that after 10 hours of continuous excitation, the asymmetric sulfur-containing xanthene fluorophores exhibited 58-94% of their initial fluorescent intensities. This observation suggested that the novel dyes were 1-2 orders of magnitude more stable than fluorescein. rnThe azido-modified xanthenes were “clicked” via Cu(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition with an oligonucleotide, which contained the terminal alkyne residue. rn

Liquid crystalline cellulose derivatives for mirrorless lasing

In this thesis cholesteric films made of liquid crystalline cellulose derivatives with improved optical properties were prepared. The choice of the solvent, hydrogen bond influencing additives, the synthetic realization of a very high degree of substitution on the cellulosic polymer and the use of mechanical stirring at the upper concentration limit of the liquid crystalline range were the basis for an improved alignment of the applied cellulose tricarbamates. In combination with a tuned substrate treatment and film preparation method, cholesteric films were obtained, with optical properties that were theoretically predicted and only known from low molecular weight liquid crystals so far. Subsequent polymerization allowed a permanent fixing of the alignment and the fabrication of free standing and insensitive films.rnThe incorporation of inorganic nanorods into the cholesteric host material was mediated with tailored block copolymers, available via controlled radical polymerization methods. In addition to the shape match between the rodlike mesogens of the host and the nanorods it was possible to increase the miscibility of both materials. Nevertheless, the size of the nanorods, in comparison to the mesogens, in these densely packed liquid crystalline phases as well as their long equilibration times were the reasons for phase separation. Nanorods are, in principle, valuable substitutes for organics, but their utilization in cellulosic CLC was not to be combined with a high quality alignment of the cholesteric structure.rnA swelling process of polymerized films in a dye solution or dissolving dyes in non-polymerized CLC was used for incorporation of the organic chromophores. With the first method the CLC could be aligned and polymerized without any disturbance due to dye molecules. The optical properties of dye and CLC were matched, with regard to mirrorless lasing devices. The dye was optically excited and laser emission supported by the cholesteric cavity was obtained. The polarization and wavelength of the emitted radiation as well as its bandwidth, the obtained interference pattern and threshold behavior of the emission proofed the feedback mechanism that was not believed to be realizable in liquid crystalline polymers. rnUtilization of a microfluidic co-flow injection device enabled us to transfer the properties of cellulosic CLC from the planar film shape to spherical micrometer sized particles. The pure material yielded particles with distorted mesogen alignment similar to films prepared by capillary flow. Dilution of the CLC with a solvent that migrated into the carrier phase during particle preparation provided the basis for particles with well ordered areas. rnAlthough cellulose derivatives were known for their liquid crystalline behavior for decades and synthesized in mass production, their application as feedback material was affected by bad optical properties. In comparison to low molar mass compounds, the low degree of order in the CLC phase was the cause. With the improved material, defined lasing emission was shown and characterized. Derivatives of cellulose are desirable materials, because, as a renewable resource, they are available in large amounts for a low price and need only simple derivatization reactions. The fabrication of CLC films with tunable lasing emission, for which this thesis can provide a starting point, is in good agreement with today's requirements of modern technology and its miniaturization.rn

Folic acid derivatives for PET imaging and therapy addressing folate receptor positive tumors

Folic acid, also known as vitamin B9, is the oxidized form of 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate, which serves as methyl- or methylene donor (C1-building blocks) during DNA synthesis. Under physiological conditions the required amount of 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate for survival of the cell is accomplished through the reduced folate carrier (RFC). In contrast, the supply of 5,6,7,8-tetrahydrofolate is insufficient under pathophysiological conditions of tumors due to an increased proliferation rate. Consequently, many tumor cells exhibit an (over)expression of the folate receptor. This phenomenon has been applied to diagnostics (PET, SPECT, MR) to image FR-positive tumors and on the other hand to treat malignancies related to a FR (over)expression. Based on this concept, a new 18F-labeled folate for PET imaging has been developed and was evaluated in vivo using tumor-bearing mice. The incorporation of oligoethylene spacers into the molecular structure led to a significant enhancement of the pharmacokinetics in comparison to previously developed 18F-folates. The liver uptake could be reduced by one sixth by remaining a tumor uptake of 3%ID/g leading to better contrast ratios. Encouraged by these results, a clickable 18F-labeled serine-based prosthetic group has been synthesized, again with the idea to improve the metabolic and pharmacokinetic profile of hydrophilic radiotracers. Therefore, an alkyne-carrying azido-functionalized serine derivative for coupling to biomolecules was synthesized and a chlorine leaving group for 18F-labeling, which could be accomplished using a microwave-assisted synthesis, a [K⊂2.2.2]+/carbonate system in DMSO. Radiochemical yields of 77±6% could be achieved.rnThe promising results obtained from the FR-targeting concept in the diagnostic field have been transferred to the boron neutron capture therapy. Therefore, a folate derivative was coupled to different boron clusters and cell uptake studies were conducted. The synthesis of the folate-boron clusters was straightforward. At first, a linker molecule based on maleic acid was synthesized, which was coupled to the boron cluster via Michael Addition of a thiol and alkene and subsequently coupled to the targeting moiety using CuAAC. The new conjugates of folate and boron clusters led to a significant increase of boron concentration in the cell of about 5-times compared to currently used and approved boron pharmaceuticals. rnMoreover, azido-folate derivatives were coupled to macromolecular carrier systems (pHPMA), which showed an enhanced and specific accumulation at target sites (up to 2.5-times) during in vivo experiments. A specific blockade could be observed up to 30% indicating an efficient targeting effect. A new kind of nanoparticles consisting of a PDLLA core and p((HPMA)-b-LMA)) as surfactants were developed and successfully radiolabeled via 18F-click chemistry in good RCYs of 8±3%rnThe nanoparticles were obtained via the miniemulsion technique in combination with solvent evaporation. The 18F-labeled nanoparticles were applied to in vivo testing using a mouse model. PET imaging showed a “mixed” biodistribution of low molecular weight as well as high molecular weight systems, indicating a partial loss of the 18F-labeled surfactant.rnIn conclusion, the presented work successfully utilized the FR-targeting concept in both, the diagnostic field (PET imaging) and for therapeutic approaches (BNCT, drug delivery systems). As a result, the high potential of FR-targeting in oncological applications has been shown and was confirmed by small animal PET imaging.rn

Pyrene derivatives as donors and acceptors

Pyrene derivatives as donors and acceptorsrnrnAlmost 200 years have passed since pyrene was first discovered, and to this day it garners unbroken interest by chemists around the world. One of the most fascinating areas of pyrene chemistry is its selective functionalization, since it is still currently a challenge to specifically functionalize different positions on the molecule.[1]rnIn this work, two new patterns of pyrene substitution have been developed. Under suitable conditions, a fourfold bromination of 4,5,9,10 tetramethoxypyrene is possible to yield eightfold functionalized pyrenes. Based on these molecules a novel series of 1,3,4,5,6,8,9,10-substituted pyrene derivatives was achieved. Synthetic approaches to a non-quinoidal, strong pyrene-4,5,9,10-tetraone based acceptor have been discussed. It emerged that the chosen synthetic approach is suitable for intermediate acceptors, yet it failed very electron deficient pyrene derivatives. Donors based on 4,5,9,10-tetramethoxypyrene (2,7- and 1,3,6,8-substitued) have been prepared and studied as CT complexes. In the SFB/TR 49 these complexes were analyzed in the solid state. For the first time charge transfer in a non-TTF CT-complex was studied by HAXPES and NEXAFS.rnBased on the works of ZÖPHEL et al.[2] it was possible to obtain an asymmetric 4,9,10 substituted pyrene derivative. This was used as a building block to prepare a non-planar acceptor molecule as well as electron-rich rylene-type molecules. rnFinally, two separate series of molecules intended as emitters for OLEDs were presented. Thermally activated delayed fluorescence (TADF) in OLEDs attracted significant academic interest as it is considered a promising approach to improve the efficiency of fluorescent OLEDs.[3] Our molecules were designed to have a deep blue emission spectrum and a minimal singlet triplet energy gap (∆ES1->T1) while retaining a high fluorescence quantum yield ϕPL. The initial OD series has a small ∆ES1->T1, yet had an insufficient ϕPL for the use in OLEDs. The Py series emitters, in contrast, combine both desired properties and were successfully implemented in efficient OLED devices.rn[1]. T. M. Figueira-Duarte and K. Müllen, Chem. Rev., 2011, 111, 7260-7314.rn[2]. L. Zöphel, V. Enkelmann and K. Müllen, Org. Lett., 2013, 15, 804-807.rn[3]. H. Uoyama, K. Goushi, K. Shizu, H. Nomura and C. Adachi, Nature, 2012, 492, 234-238.

Molecular mechanisms of shikonin and its derivatives in cancer therapy

The identification of molecular processes involved in cancer development and prognosis opened avenues for targeted therapies, which made treatment more tumor-specific and less toxic than conventional therapies. One important example is the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and EGFR-specific inhibitors (i.e. erlotinib). However, challenges such as drug resistance still remain in targeted therapies. Therefore, novel candidate compounds and new strategies are needed for improvement of therapy efficacy. Shikonin and its derivatives are cytotoxic constituents in traditional Chinese herbal medicine Zicao (Lithospermum erythrorhizin). In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the anti-cancer effects of shikonin and its derivatives in glioblastoma cells and leukemia cells. Most of shikonin derivatives showed strong cytotoxicity towards erlotinib-resistant glioblastoma cells, especially U87MG.ΔEGFR cells which overexpressed a deletion-activated EGFR (ΔEGFR). Moreover, shikonin and some derivatives worked synergistically with erlotinib in killing EGFR-overexpressing cells. Combination treatment with shikonin and erlotinib overcame the drug resistance of these cells to erlotinib. Western blotting analysis revealed that shikonin inhibited ΔEGFR phosphorylation and led to corresponding decreases in phosphorylation of EGFR downstream molecules. By means of Loewe additivity and Bliss independence drug interaction models, we found erlotinb and shikonin or its derivatives corporately suppressed ΔEGFR phosphorylation. We believed this to be a main mechanism responsible for their synergism in U87MG.ΔEGFR cells. In leukemia cells, which did not express EGFR, shikonin and its derivatives exhibited even greater cytotoxicity, suggesting the existence of other mechanisms. Microarray-based gene expression analysis uncovered the transcription factor c-MYC as the commonly deregulated molecule by shikonin and its derivatives. As validated by Western blotting analysis, DNA-binding assays and molecular docking, shikonin and its derivatives bound and inhibited c-MYC. Furthermore, the deregulation of ERK, JNK MAPK and AKT activity was closely associated with the reduction of c-MYC, indicating the involvement of these signaling molecules in shikonin-triggered c-MYC inactivation. In conclusion, the inhibition of EGFR signaling, synergism with erlotinib and targeting of c-MYC illustrate the multi-targeted feature of natural naphthoquinones such as shikonin and derivatives. This may open attractive possibilities for their use in a molecular targeted cancer therapy.